Palladium‐Catalyzed Construction of Heteroatom‐Containing π‐Conjugated Systems by Intramolecular Oxidative CH/CH Coupling Reaction

Synthesis of heteroatom‐containing ladder‐type π‐conjugated molecules was successfully achieved via a palladium‐catalyzed intramolecular oxidative C?H/C?H cross‐coupling reaction. This reaction provides a variety of π‐conjugated molecules bearing heteroatoms, such as nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur atoms, and a carbonyl group. The π‐conjugated molecules were synthesized efficiently, even in gram scale, and larger π‐conjugated molecules were also obtained by a double C?H/C?H cross‐coupling reaction and successive oxidative cycloaromatization.     

Mechanistic Study on Rh‐Catalyzed Stereoselective CC/CH Activation of tert‐Cyclobutanols

A mechanistic study was performed on the Rh‐catalyzed stereoselective C?C/C?H activation of tert‐cyclobutanols. The present study corroborated the previous proposal that the reaction occurs by metalation, β‐C elimination, 1,4‐Rh transfer, C?O insertion, and a final catalyst‐regeneration step. The rate‐determining step was found to be the 1,4‐Rh transfer step, whereas the stereoselectivity‐determining step did not correspond to any of the aforementioned steps. It was found that both the thermodynamic stability of the product of the β‐C elimination and the kinetic feasibility of the 1,4‐Rh transfer and C?O insertion steps made important contributions. In other words, three steps (i.e., β‐C elimination, 1,4‐Rh transfer, and C?O insertion) were found to be important in determining the configurations of the two quaternary stereocenters.     

Modular Synthesis of Phenanthro[9,10‐c]thiophenes by a Sequence of CH Activation,Suzuki Cross‐Coupling and Photocyclization Reactions

A total number of 15 different 3,4‐diarylthiophenes were synthesized, which bear a chlorine atom in ortho‐position of one of the aryl substituents. One aryl group was introduced by an oxidative cross‐coupling reaction, involving a C?H activation at C4(3) of the thiophene core. The other aryl group was in most cases introduced by a Suzuki cross‐coupling reaction, which succeeded the oxidative cross‐coupling step. Photocyclization reactions of the 3,4‐diarylthiophenes were performed in a solvent mixture of benzene and acetonitrile (50:50 v/v) at λ=254 nm and proceeded to the title compounds in yields of 60–82 %. The selectivity of the photocyclization was determined at the ortho‐chloro‐substituted aryl ring by the position of the chlorine substituent. At the other ring, a single regioisomer was observed for phenyl and para‐substituted phenyl groups. For 2‐naphthyl and ortho‐substituted phenyl rings a clear preference was observed in favor of a major regioisomer, while meta‐substitution in the phenyl ring led to a about 1:1 mixture of 5‐ and 7‐substituted phenanthro[9,10‐c]thiophenes. Mechanistically, the photocyclization is likely to occur as a photochemically allowed, conrotatory [(4n+2)π] process accompanied by elimination of HCl. It was shown for two phenanthro[9,10‐c]thiophene products that they can be readily brominated in positions C1 and C3 (74–77 %), which in turn allows for further functionalization at these positions, for example, in the course of halogen–metal exchange and polymerization reactions.     

Manganese‐Catalyzed Dehydrogenative [4+2] Annulation of NH Imines and Alkynes by CH/NH Activation

Described herein is a manganese‐catalyzed dehydrogenative [4+2] annulation of N? H imines and alkynes, a reaction providing highly atom‐economical access to diverse isoquinolines. This transformation represents the first example of manganese‐catalyzed C? H activation of imines; the stoichiometric variant of the cyclomanganation was reported in 1971. The redox neutral reaction produces H₂ as the major byproduct and eliminates the need for any oxidants, external ligands, or additives, thus standing out from known isoquinoline synthesis by transition‐metal‐catalyzed C? H activation. Mechanistic studies revealed the five‐membered manganacycle and manganese hydride species as key reaction intermediates in the catalytic cycle.     

Palladium‐Catalyzed Synthesis of Phenanthridine/Benzoxazine‐Fused Quinazolinones by Intramolecular CH Bond Activation

A highly efficient synthesis of phenanthridine/benzoxazine‐fused quinazolinones by ligand‐free palladium‐catalyzed intramolecular C?H bond activation under mild conditions has been developed. The C?C coupling provides the corresponding N‐fused polycyclic heterocycles in good to excellent yields and with wide functional group tolerance.     

Synthesis of Annelated Phospholes through Intramolecular CH Activation by Monovalent Phosphorus

Electrophilic terminal phosphinidene complexes [Ar‐Ar‐P‐W(CO)₅] (Ar‐Ar: biaryl or an analogue thereof) undergo a spontaneous insertion of the phosphorus atom into the vicinal C? H bonds to give annelated phospholes. Twelve examples are described, including biphenyl, thienyl, pyrrolyl, and benzofuryl groups as biaryl moieties. The activation energy of the insertion reaction is quite low (about 2 kcal mol^?1).     

Oxygen‐Promoted CH Bond Activation at Palladium

[Pd(P(Ar)(tBu)₂)₂] ( 1 , Ar=naphthyl) reacts with molecular oxygen to form Pd^II hydroxide dimers in which the naphthyl ring is cyclometalated and one equivalent of phosphine per palladium atom is released. This reaction involves the cleavage of both C? H and O? O bonds, two transformations central to catalytic aerobic oxidizations of hydrocarbons. Observations at low temperature suggest the initial formation of a superoxo complex, which then generates a peroxo complex prior to the C? H activation step. A transition state for energetically viable C? H activation across a Pd? peroxo bond was located computationally.     

Cobalt(III)‐Catalyzed Dehydrative [4+2] Annulation of Oxime with Alkyne by CH and NOH Activation

Efficient, scalable cobalt‐catalyzed redox‐neutral [4+2] annulation of readily available oximes and alkyne is reported. The developed synthetic methodology is widely applicable and tolerates various functional groups including heterocycles. A stable Cp*Co^III neutral complex is employed as the catalyst for this redox‐neutral [4+2] annulation reaction, which progresses smoothly by way of a reversible cyclometallation without any external oxidizing agent, and produces only water as the side product.     

Metal‐Free Oxidative CC Bond Formation through CH Bond Functionalization

The formation of C?C bonds embodies the core of organic chemistry because of its fundamental application in generation of molecular diversity and complexity. C?C bond‐forming reactions are well‐known challenges. To achieve this goal through direct functionalization of C?H bonds in both of the coupling partners represents the state‐of‐the‐art in organic synthesis. Oxidative C?C bond formation obviates the need for prefunctionalization of both substrates. This Minireview is dedicated to the field of C?C bond‐forming reactions through direct C?H bond functionalization under completely metal‐free oxidative conditions. Selected important developments in this area have been summarized with representative examples and discussions on their reaction mechanisms.     

Rhodium‐Catalyzed CS and CN Functionalization of Arenes: Combination of CH Activation and Hypervalent Iodine Chemistry

Rhodium‐catalyzed sulfonylation, thioetherification, thiocyanation, and other heterofunctionalizations of arenes bearing a heterocyclic directing group have been realized. The reaction proceeds by initial Rh^III‐catalyzed C?H hyperiodination of arene at room temperature followed by uncatalyzed nucleophilic functionalization. A diaryliodonium salt is isolated as an intermediate, which represents umpolung of the arene substrate, in contrast to previous studies that suggested umpolung of the coupling partner.     

Efficient Access to Titanaaziridines by CH Activation of N‐Methylanilines at Ambient Temperature

Titanaaziridines or η²‐imine titanium complexes are considered key intermediates of the titanium‐catalyzed hydroaminoalkylation of alkenes. Herein, we present an efficient synthetic route to this class of compounds, starting from N‐methylanilines and a bis(η⁵:η¹‐pentafulvene)titanium complex. Consecutive reactions on the η²‐methyleneaniline complexes, characterized for the first time, prove a high chemical versatility. In particular, hydroaminoalkylation products were found in reactions of the three‐membered titanacycles with alkenes. For the first time, all the intermediates of the hydroaminoalkylation of alkenes were isolated and characterized.     

Electrochemical Intramolecular CH Amination: Synthesis of Benzoxazoles and Benzothiazoles

A new method for metal‐free intramolecular C?H amination has been developed. Electrochemical oxidation of 2‐pyrimidyloxybenzenes and 2‐pyrimidylthiobenzenes, which can be easily prepared from phenols and thiophenols, respectively, followed by the treatment of the resulting pyrimidinium ions with piperidine gives 2‐aminobenzoxazoles and 2‐aminobenzothiazoles, respectively.     

Rhodium(III)‐Catalyzed CC and CO Coupling of Quinoline N‐Oxides with Alkynes: Combination of CH Activation with O‐Atom Transfer

[Cp*Rh^III]‐catalyzed C? H activation of arenes assisted by an oxidizing N? O or N? N directing group has allowed the construction of a number of hetercycles. In contrast, a polar N? O bond is well‐known to undergo O‐atom transfer (OAT) to alkynes. Despite the liability of N? O bonds in both C? H activation and OAT, these two important areas evolved separately. In this report, [Cp*Rh^III] catalysts integrate both areas in an efficient redox‐neutral coupling of quinoline N‐oxides with alkynes to afford α‐(8‐quinolyl)acetophenones. In this process the N? O bond acts as both a directing group for C? H activation and as an O‐atom donor.     

Palladium‐Catalyzed CH Activation and Intermolecular Annulation with Allenes

A new and efficient Pd^II‐catalyzed intermolecular annulation of N‐benzoylsulfonamide with allenes for the synthesis of 3,4‐dihydroisoquinolin‐1(2H)‐ones is reported. This C?H functionalization is compatible with ambient air and moisture, and it can be applied to terminal or internal allenes with di?erent synthetically attractive functional groups. Control experiments and a kinetic isotope effect study are conducted and a plausible mechanism is proposed.     

One‐Pot Synthesis of Highly Substituted Polyheteroaromatic Compounds by Rhodium(III)‐Catalyzed Multiple CH Activation and Annulation

A new method for the synthesis of highly substituted naphthyridine‐based polyheteroaromatic compounds in high yields proceeds through rhodium(III)‐catalyzed multiple C? H bond cleavage and C? C and C? N bond formation in a one‐pot process. Such highly substituted polyheteroaromatic compounds have attracted much attention because of their unique π‐conjugation, which make them suitable materials for organic semiconductors and luminescent materials. Furthermore, a possible mechanism, which involves multiple chelation‐assisted ortho C? H activation, alkyne insertion, and reductive elimination, is proposed for this transformation.     

Rhodium‐Catalyzed Directed Sulfenylation of Arene CH Bonds

The rhodium‐catalyzed intermolecular direct C?H thiolation of arenes with aryl and alkyl disulfides was developed for the first time to provide a convenient route to aryl thioethers. This strategy is compatible with many different directing groups and exhibits excellent functional group tolerance. More significantly, mono‐ or dithiolation can be selectively achieved, thus providing a straightforward way for selective preparation of aryl thioethers and dithioethers.     

A Convenient Photocatalytic Fluorination of Unactivated CH Bonds

Fluorination reactions are essential to modern medicinal chemistry, thus providing a means to block site‐selective metabolic degradation of drugs and access radiotracers for positron emission tomography imaging. Despite current sophistication in fluorination reagents and processes, the fluorination of unactivated C? H bonds remains a significant challenge. Reported herein is a convenient and economic process for direct fluorination of unactivated C? H bonds that exploits the hydrogen abstracting ability of a decatungstate photocatalyst in combination with the mild fluorine atom transfer reagent N‐fluorobenzenesulfonimide. This operationally straightforward reaction provides direct access to a wide range of fluorinated organic molecules, including structurally complex natural products, acyl fluorides, and fluorinated amino acid derivatives.     

Enantioselective ortho‐CH Cross‐Coupling of Diarylmethylamines with Organoborons

The commonly used para‐nitrobenzenesulfonyl (nosyl) protecting group is employed to direct the C? H activation of amines for the first time. An enantioselective ortho‐C? H cross‐coupling between nosyl‐protected diarylmethylamines and arylboronic acid pinacol esters has been achieved utilizing chiral mono‐N‐protected amino acid (MPAA) ligands as a promoter.     

Catalyst‐Switchable Regiocontrol in the Direct Arylation of Remote CH Groups in Pyrazolo[1,5‐a]pyrimidines

The regiodivergent palladium‐catalyzed C? H arylation of pyrazolo[1,5‐a]pyrimidine has been achieved, wherein the switch in regioselectivity between positions C3 and C7 is under complete catalyst control. A phosphine‐containing palladium catalyst promotes the direct arylation at the most acidic position (C7), whereas a phosphine‐free catalyst targets the most electron‐rich position (C3).