Low-energy electron beam on an insulator surface: Impact of the charging process on the diffraction by mica muscovite

The expected low-energy electron diffraction by an insulator is deduced from the consequence of the surface charge distribution on the diffraction process. If the yield of secondary electron emission is greater than unity, the surface reaches electrostatic equilibrium and charges positively. Then incident electrons are simply accelerated and their wavelength is shortened, so the diffraction condition is modified. We show that this modification is strictly compensated by the deviation of the diffracted backward electron crossing the charged surface. The diffraction pattern displays the same geometry, size and symmetry but the diffracted intensity is modified. Through this process the low energy electron diffraction is shown to be an efficient tool to investigate the charging process induced on insulator surfaces by an electron beam. This is exemplified with the surface of mica muscovite, where we relate the oscillation of the surface charge to the evolution of the intensity of the diffraction spots.     

块状TiO2气凝胶的溶胶-凝胶过程及结构

对块状TiO2气凝胶的溶胶-凝胶过程及结构进行了实验研究,结果发现:增加催化剂的量,凝胶化时间缩短,湿凝胶的透明度降低,强度提高;增加前驱体的量,凝胶化时间缩短,湿凝胶的透明度变化不大,强度提高;增加水量,凝胶化时间先缩短后增加,湿凝胶透明度先减小后增加,强度先增加后减小。利用扫描电镜对超临界干燥法制备的不同催化剂量和密度的块状TiO2气凝胶的结构进行了表征,并对结构与溶胶-凝胶过程之间的联系进行了分析。结果表明:增加催化剂量,由于缩聚反应进行的程度提高,气凝胶粒子粒径较小且总的孔径较大。减小前驱体量,气凝胶粒子粒径增大且结构逐渐疏松。     

不同微槽结构绝缘子真空沿面闪络特性

针对单极性脉冲电压下不同微槽结构绝缘子真空沿面闪络特性开展实验研究。根据二次电子运动特性,设计了多种微槽宽度,对比了微槽结构和平面结构的绝缘子耐压特性差异。槽宽为1mm的微槽样品耐压水平与平面结构样品耐压水平相当,槽宽小于1mm的样品组耐压水平均高于平面结构样品,最高电压提高倍数约为1.4,说明一定尺寸范围内的微槽设计将提高绝缘子真空耐压水平。通过电场强度计算分析微槽结构对二次电子运动的影响过程可知,较大的微槽宽度可使电子限制在槽内运动,较小的微槽宽度将抑制初始电子的发展,最终二者都能达到抑制闪络的目的。通过显微镜观测各组样品表面特征,材料表面微观缺陷将可能降低材料耐压水平。     

Influence of charge deposition in a field-emission display panel

Field-emission displays (FEDs) have been studied intensively in recent years as a candidate for flat-display panels in the future. In a FED, electrons emit from field emitters. Some electrons may impinge on the insulator surface between cathode and gate electrodes and cause charging of that surface because the yield of secondary electron emission is usually not equal to one. The charging of the insulator walls between cathode and gate electrodes is one of the important factors influencing the performance of a FED. In this paper, a simulation program is used to calculate this charge deposition, electric field distribution and electron trajectories. From the change of the electric field upon charge deposition in the triode region, it is shown that the insulator surface is negatively charged at a low gate voltage, e.g. 20 V. However, positive charge is deposited when the gate voltage is high, e.g. 100 V. The simulations also show that the emission current will increase even further after coating the dielectric with a thin film of a material with a high-secondary emission coefficient such as MgO. If a cone-shaped dielectric aperture is used in a triode, the emission current will decrease after charge deposition. However, the focus performance of the electron beam is improving in this case.     

长脉冲二极管绝缘子真空表面闪络

 在长脉冲强流无箔二极管实验过程中观察到绝缘子沿面闪络现象。分析实验现象认为是屏蔽环与绝缘子距离过近造成了屏蔽环边缘高场强,从而产生场致发射电子。电子在强电磁场作用下撞击绝缘子表面引起了二次电子雪崩从而导致真空表面闪络。运用静电场模拟和粒子束模拟,改进屏蔽环结构。改进后的二极管工作电压500 kV,电流12 kA,在1 T引导磁场下稳定运行,没有再发生真空表面闪络。     

绝缘环打火研究

绝缘问题是高电压、高场强器件和设备中不可回避的问题,是决定器件、设备运行参数和稳定性的重要因素。针对一台直线感应加速器调试中出现的加速腔绝缘环在带束负载情况下的真空沿面闪络现象,进行了分析和研究。分析表明,在排除设计、材料、加工、洁净和真空度等常规异常因素后,导致绝缘环真空沿面闪络的可能因素是电子在绝缘环表面的吸附和累积,绝缘环上累积的电子来源和加速器中加速、传输的电子束的丢失有关。从加速腔工作状态出发,分析绝缘环表面积累电荷和丢失电子束的相关途径,进而提出相应的技术措施,以提高加速腔运行稳定性。     

固体绝缘子的真空沿面闪络研究

针对在高压设备中因沿面闪络现象而发生绝缘失效的问题,对沿面闪络现象中的基础特性测量手段、影响因素及其发生机制等关键问题进行了归纳总结,介绍了目前关于沿面闪络观测手段及其影响因素研究的主要进展,并对沿面闪络过程的具体机制以及表面电荷在沿面闪络过程中扮演的作用进行讨论。其中,外在因素、电极-介质界面层因素以及真空-介质表面层因素等三大类因素在影响沿面闪络的同时也对表面电荷积聚消散造成影响,其具体机制各不相同。在沿面闪络的主流机制中,SEEA理论较完整地阐述了沿面闪络的起始过程,ETPR理论则对沿面闪络的发展过程有着更好的解释。此外,表面电荷为沿面闪络发生提供了必要电荷,其积累与消散行为对沿面闪络发展起着决定性作用。开发能够实现低二次电子发射系数与高表面电导的绝缘材料及表面改性技术将是该领域未来重点研究方向。     

环氧树脂基真空绝缘材料的制备和性能测试

 介绍了一种用于脉冲功率装置真空绝缘子的环氧树脂基复合材料的研制机理、制备过程和典型性能。初步测试结果表明,添加一定量的水合氧化铝颗粒可以使环氧树脂材料的表面电阻率由5×10¹⁶ Ω降低为6×10¹¹ Ω,这一特性有利于释放由于沿面闪络等原因沉积在真空绝缘子表面的电荷,从而使材料在脉冲电压下的沿面闪络电压有所提高,实验得到在上升沿400 ns的脉冲电压作用下, 沿面闪络电压可从17 kV 提高到 28 kV。     

高功率微波沿面闪络击穿机制粒子模拟

针对高功率微波介质沿面闪络击穿物理过程,首先建立了理论模型,包括:动力学方程、粒子模拟算法、二次电子发射, 以及电子与气体分子蒙特卡罗碰撞模型、电子碰撞介质表面退吸附气体分子机制;其次,基于理论模型,编制了1D3V PIC-MCC程序,分别针对真空二次电子倍增、高气压体电离击穿和低气压面电离击穿过程,运用该程序仔细研究了电子和离子随时间演化关系、电子运动轨迹、电子及离子密度分布、空间电荷场时空分布、电子平均能量、碰撞电子平均能量、碰撞电子数目随时间演化关系、电子能量分布函数、平均二次电子发射率以及能量转换关系。研究结果表明:真空二次电子倍增引发的介质表面沉积功率只能达到入射微波功率1%左右的水平,不足以击穿;气体碰撞电离主导的高气压体电离击穿,是由低能电子（eV量级）数目指数增长到一定程度导致的,形成位置远离介质表面,形成时间为s量级;低气压下的介质沿面闪络击穿,是在二次电子倍增和气体碰撞电离共同作用下,由于数目持续增长的高能电子（keV量级）碰撞介质沿面导致沉积功率激增而引发的,形成位置贴近介质沿面,形成时间在ns量级。     

“神龙二号”气体火花开关中绝缘结构的电场分析与优化

气体火花开关作为重要部件被大量地应用于直线感应加速器和Z箍缩等大型脉冲功率装置中。绝缘结构设计不合理会使得气体火花开关中出现局部电场畸变和电荷积聚等现象。在高电压脉冲下长时间或高频次运行时,火花开关中的绝缘子会发生沿面闪络现象,直接影响到脉冲功率装置的正常运行。鉴于此,对气体火花开关中的绝缘结构进行了有限元电场分析,用表面电荷的积聚定性解释了沿面闪络发生的原因。通过对绝缘子的几何结构和电极尺寸的优化设计,有效降低了绝缘子表面和电极表面的电场强度,其中阳极三结合点场强从9.4 kV/mm降至1.5 kV/mm,阴极三结合点场强从2.95 kV/mm降至0.98 kV/mm,绝缘子表面最高场强从10.8 kV/mm降至4.95 kV/mm。优化后的绝缘结构电场分布较为合理,降低了由于表面电荷的积聚而引发沿面闪络的概率。     

The influence of ion bombardment on emission properties of small dust grains

Dust grains that are present in many plasma and vacuum systems and in the space usually carry a non-negligible charge. Their charging significantly depends on surface properties of the grain material. In cold plasma, charging is mainly given by electron attachment, nevertheless, when plasma becomes hot, other processes (secondary electron emission, field emission, etc.) take place. Emission properties of the grain surface could be modified by grain baking or by ion bombardment. Our study is carried out at the dust charging experiment dealing with a single dust grain electro-dynamically levitated in a 3D quadrupole trap. The grain can be exposed to the ion beam in the energy range of 100 eV–5 keV and to the electron beam in the energy range of 100 eV–10 keV. We have chosen He⁺ and Ar⁺ ions for the surface treatment and the observed influence on the surface properties is discussed in terms of secondary emission. A non-negligible shift of the secondary electron emission yield, as well as a change of energy distribution of secondary electrons, were measured after Ar⁺ bombardment. A preliminary study suggests that the effects of He⁺ and Ar⁺ are comparable.     

等离子体浸没离子注入非导电聚合物的适应性及栅网诱导效应的研究

本文建立了绝缘材料等离子体浸没离子注入过程的动力学Particle-in-cell(PIC)模型, 将二次电子发射系数直接与离子注入即时能量建立关联, 研究了非导电聚合物厚度、介电常数和二次电子发射系数对表面偏压电位的影响规律以及栅网诱导效应. 研究结果表明: 非导电聚合物较厚时, 表面自偏压难以实现全方位离子注入, 栅网诱导可以间接为非导电聚合物提供偏压, 并抑制二次电子发射, 为厚大非导电聚合物表面等离子体浸没离子注入提供了有效途径.     

微秒长脉冲有磁场高功率微波二极管真空界面设计

介绍了一种微秒长脉冲有磁场的真空二极管界面的设计和实验结果。采取了三种措施来抑制沿面闪络:一是阴极电子束挡板,用来拦截来自阴极和电子束漂移管的回流电子束;二是接地屏蔽板,使电场等势线和界面成约45°角,使阴极三结合点处发射的电子远离绝缘板;三是降低阴极三结合点处的场强,并使用一悬浮电位的金属环阻止电子倍增过程。计算了二极管内电场、磁场分布和电子束的运动轨迹并据此优化了真空界面的结构,实验验证了该二极管真空界面可以在400 kV、800 ns条件下正常工作,可以支持长脉冲高功率微波器件的研究。     

不同应用条件下最佳绝缘子构型

绝缘子的沿面闪络制约着脉冲功率系统向高电压、大电流方向发展,总结了几种实际应用条件下的最佳绝缘子构型,并对不同角度下绝缘子表面的带电情况进行了分析。结果表明,表面电荷对不同绝缘子构型的性能起着至关重要的作用,需要根据不同的应用条件来开展实验研究以确定最佳的绝缘子构型。     

一种表面具有纳米孔穴的聚合物绝缘子

绝缘体表面结构和微观形貌对提高器件真空闪络特性有重要影响。首次提出了表面具有均匀分布纳米级空穴聚合物绝缘子的化学制备方法。通过本体聚合制备纳米级二氧化硅颗粒均匀分布的交联聚苯乙烯复合材料,机械加工成聚合物绝缘子后,采用氢氟酸化学腐蚀的方法将绝缘子表面氧化物颗粒去除。采用透射电子显微镜、表面电阻率和短脉冲高压测试平台分别对处理前后绝缘子的表面形貌和绝缘等性能进行了表征,结果表明:处理后的交联聚苯乙烯复合材料绝缘子的表面形成了20~50 nm直径的空穴,空穴的大小和数量分布分别由二氧化硅颗粒的粒径和加入量控制。这种具有特殊表面结构的新型绝缘子的沿面闪络电压较纯交联聚苯乙烯绝缘子提高了15%~20%,并保持了较好的力学及加工性能。研究方法和实验结果对聚合物绝缘子的表面结构设计及高性能绝缘子的研制提供了一种新的途径。     

真空中电子辐照下聚四氟乙烯沿面闪络电压特性

为了研究聚四氟乙烯材料(PTFE)在空间粒子环境中放电规律及其影响因素,通过实验获得了高真空低能电子辐照下PTFE高压直流沿面闪络电压,并采用等温电位衰减法测试了PTEE在辐照前及辐照后的陷阱密度,分析了影响PTEE沿面闪络电压的因素。研究结果表明:相比于无辐照时PTFE沿面闪络电压,当辐照电子能量为19~25 keV时,闪络电压明显更高;在电子束流密度不变的情况下,电子能量越高,材料表面正电荷密度越小,陷阱密度与电导率越大,电场畸形程度越小,因此闪络电压升高;当电子能量一定时,束流密度越高,初始电子数量和二次电子数量越多,因此闪络电压降低。     

微堆层绝缘子的研制与初步实验研究

 为发展新型介质壁加速器技术,研制了微堆层绝缘子并开展了初步的实验研究。利用有限元及粒子模拟方法,理论计算了微堆层绝缘子的沿面电场分布及电子运动轨迹,提出微堆层绝缘子的优化设计方案;采用高温层压的方法,研制出以聚全氟乙丙烯薄膜为介质层、不锈钢膜为金属层的微堆层绝缘子试样,并初步开展了纳秒脉冲下微堆层绝缘子的真空沿面闪络实验。研究结果表明：微堆层绝缘子具有良好的真空沿面闪络性能,其闪络场强可达180 kV/cm。     

Mechanisms of charging of insulators under irradiation with medium-energy electron beams

The electron emission and charge characteristics of a large number of massive insulators are investigated qualitatively and quantitatively. It is demonstrated that irradiation of insulators with a medium-energy continuous electron beam leads to a decrease in the equilibrium energy of incident electrons (the second critical energy) as compared to the theoretical value. The equilibrium state of charging to saturation is attained for times from several seconds to several hundred seconds depending on the irradiation current density, the electron energy, and the insulator material. The mechanisms of charging are explained in the framework of the model according to which irradiation is accompanied by the formation of a charged double layer that consists of a positively charged layer (with the thickness equal to the escape depth of secondary electrons) and a negatively charged layer (with the thickness equal to the penetration depth of primary electrons).     

Investigations of Fast Insulator Surface Flashover in Vacuum

Electrooptical measurements of the electric fields along insulator surfaces have been made, utilizing the Kerr and Pockels effects, to determine the mechanisms associated with fast insulator flashover in vacuum. Data are presented that show the temporal and spatial variations of the surface fields prior to and at flashover for insulator surfaces oriented at 0° and 45° with respect to the applied field. It is found that the surface field near the cathode is enhanced and the field near the anode is reduced during the excitation. The results further show a temporal reduction in the field nonuniformity as flashover is approached. The field collapse associated with flashover occurs very rapidly for 0° surfaces. The field collapse for 45° surfaces begins at the anode and propagates at 0.83 cm/ns towards the cathode. Mechanisms consistent with these experimental measurements are postulated.     

基于磁场闪络抑制技术的真空沿面闪络实验研究

为解决脉冲功率系统中击穿电压最低的部分,即真空固体绝缘界面,采用磁场闪络抑制技术提高闪络电压,为研究磁场和沿面闪络电压的关系,针对不同介电常数的样品开展了一系列相关实验。实验结果表明:采用电容器对通电螺线管充电产生的脉冲强磁场稳定可靠,并且当施加在绝缘子表面磁场强度为1.1 T时,PMMA材料的闪络电压可以提高至1.8倍。