An alternative formulation for the analysis and interpretation of the Dirac hydrogen atom

The second-order radial differential equations for the relativistic Dirac hydrogen atom are derived from the Dirac equation treated as a system of partial differential equations. The quantum operators which arise in the development are defined and interpreted as they appear. The splitting in the energy levels is computed by applying the theory of singularities for second-order differential equations to the Klein-Gordon and Dirac relativistic equations. In the Dirac radial equation additional terms appear containing a constant, which is shown to be the radius of the electron. It is concluded that the minute perturbation of the radial eigenfunction in the vicinity of the proton brought about by the extension of the elementary particles, which appears naturally out of the Dirac equations, results in the prediction of the observed splitting of the hydrogen atom energy levels by the Dirac theory. The extension of the particles arises even though the Dirac hydrogen atom is originally formulated for point charges.     

Linear and nonlinear Dirac equation

Using the usual matrix representation of Clifford algebra of spacetime, quantities independent of the choice of a representation in the Dirac theory are examined, relativistic invariance of the theory is discussed, and a nonlinear equation is proposed. The equation presents no negative energy waves and gives the same results as the linear theory for hydrogen atom.     

Canonical Proper-Time Dirac Theory

In this paper, we report on a new approach to relativistic quantum theory. The classical theory is derived from a new implementation of the first two postulates of Einstein, which fixes the proper-time of the physical system of interest for all observers. This approach leads to a new group that we call the proper-time group. We then construct a canonical contact transformation on extended phase space to identify the canonical Hamiltonian associated with the proper-time variable. On quantization we get a new relativistic wave equation for spin 1/2 particles that generalizes the Dirac theory. The Hamiltonian is positive definite so we naturally interpret antiparticles as particles with their proper-time reversed. We show that for the hydrogen atom problem, we get the same fine structure separation. When the proton spin magnetic moment is taken into account, we get the standard hyperfine splitting terms of the Pauli approximation and two additional terms. The first term is small in p-states. It diverges in s-states, and provides more than enough to account for the Lamb-shift when the proton radius is used as a cut off. The last term promises to provide a correction to the hyperfine splitting term. Although incomplete, the general approach offers hope of completely accounting for the hydrogen spectrum as an eigenvalue problem.     

CPT and Lorentz invariance violation in hydrogen-like atoms

We analyze an approximate solution to the Dirac equation for an electron in a central potential, in particular, in a Coulomb potential, when Lorentz invariance is violated. A quasi-relativistic approximation for the Dirac equation in an external field has been derived. The directivity pattern of spontaneous emission for a polarized hydrogen atom has been found to be asymmetric.     

Quarkonium and hydrogen spectra with spin-dependent relativistic wave equation

The non-linear non-perturbative relativistic atomic theory introduces spin in the dynamics of particle motion. The resulting energy levels of hydrogen atom are exactly the same as that of Dirac theory. The theory accounts for the energy due to spin-orbit interaction and for the additional potential energy due to spin and spin-orbit coupling. Spin angular momentum operator is integrated into the equation of motion. This requires modification to classical Laplacian operator. Consequently, the Dirac matrices and the k operator of Dirac’s theory are dispensed with. The theory points out that the curvature of the orbit draws on certain amount of kinetic and potential energies affecting the momentum of electron and the spin-orbit interaction energy constitutes a part of this energy. The theory is developed for spin-1/2 bound state single electron in Coulomb potential and then extended further to quarkonium physics by introducing the linear confining potential. The unique feature of this quarkonium model is that the radial distance can be exactly determined and does not have a statistical interpretation. The established radial distance is then used to determine the wave function. The observed energy levels are used as the input parameters and the radial distance and the string tension are predicted. This ensures 100% conformance to all observed energy levels for the heavy quarkonium.     

Fierz bilinear formulation of the Maxwell–Dirac equations and symmetry reductions

We study the Maxwell–Dirac equations in a manifestly gauge invariant presentation using only the spinor bilinear scalar and pseudoscalar densities, and the vector and pseudovector currents, together with their quadratic Fierz relations. The internally produced vector potential is expressed via algebraic manipulation of the Dirac equation, as a rational function of the Fierz bilinears and first derivatives (valid on the support of the scalar density), which allows a gauge invariant vector potential to be defined. This leads to a Fierz bilinear formulation of the Maxwell tensor and of the Maxwell–Dirac equations, without any reference to gauge dependent quantities. We show how demanding invariance of tensor fields under the action of a fixed (but arbitrary) Lie subgroup of the Poincaré group leads to symmetry reduced equations. The procedure is illustrated, and the reduced equations worked out explicitly for standard spherical and cylindrical cases, which are coupled third order nonlinear PDEs. Spherical symmetry necessitates the existence of magnetic monopoles, which do not affect the coupled Maxwell–Dirac system due to magnetic terms cancelling. In this paper we do not take up numerical computations. As a demonstration of the power of our approach, we also work out the symmetry reduced equations for two distinct classes of dimension 4 one-parameter families of Poincaré subgroups, one splitting and one non-splitting. The splitting class yields no solutions, whereas for the non-splitting class we find a family of formal exact solutions in closed form.     

Nuclear motion corrections to the binding energy in hydrogen

Most of the calculations of nuclear recoil corrections to the atomic binding in hydrogen have been done using the covariant Bethe-Salpeter equation. In this paper an alternative to the Bethe-Salpeter approach in the form of a modified Dirac equation is presented. It contains the usual Hamiltonian for an electron in the field of a static proton, but it also includes the proton's kinetic energy and an interaction term due to transverse photons. The part of the interaction which produces the hyperfine splitting is extracted and treated perturbatively, whereas the remainder of the potential is retained, rearranged, and approximated in such a way as to make the resulting equation soluble. In a simple way, we are able to obtain reduced mass corrections to the fine structure and the hyperfine structure of hydrogen. An extension of the work, which enables us to calculate additional recoil terms not included in our lowest order effective potential, is briefly described.     

Relativistic quantum mechanics of the hydrogen atom as the weak-field limit of a nonlinear theory

The effect of nonlinear terms in the Dirac equation is investigated, in the case of the hydrogen atom. It is found that the change in the energy is of order ⁶ for a very large range of values of the coupling constant of the dominant term. It is shown that a nonlinear classical field theory has a quantumlike behavior near the linear limit. This implies the existence of a close relation between linearization and quantization. A classical stable model of the hydrogen atom is presented. Some consequences are discussed.     

Supersymmetrization of Quaternion Dirac Equation for Generalized Fields of Dyons

The quaternion Dirac equation in presence of generalized electromagnetic field has been discussed in terms of two gauge potentials of dyons. Accordingly, the supersymmetry has been established consistently and thereafter the one, two and component Dirac Spinors of generalized quaternion Dirac equation of dyons for various energy and spin values are obtained for different cases in order to understand the duality invariance between the electric and magnetic constituents of dyons.     

What can be tested in quantum electrodynamics?

In this paper we examine the theoretical foundations underlying the testing of quantum electrodynamics. We show that for the photon propagator (together with the contiguous vertices) it is not necessary to introduce ad hoc modifications in sufficiently accurate scattering experiments. Energy, momentum transfer, and accuracy determine the tested length in a model-independent way. The situation is quite different with the electron propagator. If gauge invariance is taken for granted, the electron propagator cannot be tested with processes where diagrams with open electron lines are important in the lowest order of perturbation theory. These processes can only give limits for anomalous moment and multiphoton parts of the vertices. On the other hand, processes with closed electron loops (vacuum polarization), such as photon-photon and Delbrück scattering, as well as photon splitting or corresponding low-energy, high-precision experiments can give limits also for the electron propagator. But in these cases only less accurate limits can be obtained, which depend on the modification model. Hence testing of the electron propagator, i.e., roughly speaking, the Dirac equation, is much more difficult than testing of the photon propagator, i.e, Maxwell's equations.Dedicated to the memory of Prof. Wolfgang Yourgrau (1908–1979).Presented at the 1975 International Symposium on Lepton and Photon Interactions at High Energies, Stanford University, Stanford, California.     

Quantenphysikalischer Ursprung der Eichidee

The Quantum Physical Origin of the Gauge Idea To consider quantum physics as an interplay of creation and annihilation processes has the consequence that gauge field theories are not only possible but necessary. Since the complex conjugate phase factors of each pair of fermion creators and annihilators can be arbitrary chosen, quantum field theories must be completely phase invariant. Unfortunately, even globally the Dirac equation for systems of free fermions is not phase invariant. The Dirac matrices are namely transformed, if we multiply the spinor components by different constant phase factors. The Dirac equations before and after the transformation are however physically equivalent. We may therefore say: Systems of free fermions will be completely described, only if we consider the class of all equivalent Dirac equations. Since Dirac's commutation relations are unitarily invariant, the class equivalent Dirac equations is invariant under all transformations of the group U 4. Unitary diagonal matrices yield arbitrary phase transformations. Hence, gauge fields of the group U 4 are compatible with the postulate of general phase invariance. These gauge file are so similar to the QED that we may speak of an “extended quantum electrodynamics”, EQE. Here, we will show that EQE exists. The invariant subgroup U 1 U 4 yields QED. The complementary subgroup SU 4 includes four subgroups SU 3, there subgroups O 4, and six subgroups SU 2. The latter ones may yield three pairs of quarks and three pairs of leptons, where the quarks form a group SU 3. More than two times three pairs of elementary fermions does not exist in in EQE Probably, EQE is different from the United EQD and QCD. However, it should be a promising version of a field theory in elementary particle physics, because it follows from an existing symmetry of the empirically wel founded Dirac theory. EQE is therefore free from hypothesis in the Newtonian sense of the word. Whatever it will finally mean, it cannot be rejected, since phase invariance must be required. The invention of new symmetries and the acception of a bie number of independent spinor components is dispensable or must be postponed at least.     

New Exact Solution of Dirac-Coulomb Equation with Exact Boundary Condition

It usually writes the boundary condition of the wave equation in the Coulomb field as a rough form without considering the size of the atomic nucleus. The rough expression brings on that the solutions of the Klein-Gordon equation and the Dirac equation with the Coulomb potential are divergent at the origin of the coordinates, also the virtual energies, when the nuclear charges number Z>137, meaning the original solutions do not satisfy the conditions for determining solution. Any divergences of the wave functions also imply that the probability density of the meson or the electron would rapidly increase when they are closing to the atomic nucleus. What it predicts is not a truth that the atom in ground state would rapidly collapse to the neutron-like. We consider that the atomic nucleus has definite radius and write the exact boundary condition for the hydrogen and hydrogen-like atom, then newly solve the radial Dirac-Coulomb equation and obtain a new exact solution without any mathematical and physical difficulties. Unexpectedly, the K value constructed by Dirac is naturally written in the barrier width or the equivalent radius of the atomic nucleus in solving the Dirac equation with the exact boundary condition, and it is independent of the quantum energy. Without any divergent wave function and the virtual energies, we obtain a new formula of the energy levels that is different from the Dirac formula of the energy levels in the Coulomb field.     

Differential geometry of atomic structure and the binding energy of atoms

The geometric theory of partial differential equations due to E. Cartan is applied to atomic systems in order to solve the many-body problems and to obtain the binding energies of electrons in an atom. The procedure consists in defining a Schrödinger equation over an Euclidean patch which overlaps with other Euclidean patches in a specified way to form a manifold. If the energy of the system has to be a minimum, it is shown using the Dirichlet principle that the coordinate systems are related by the Cauchy-Riemann relations. The invariance of the Schrödinger equations in the overlapping region leads to a nonlinear second-order equation which is invariant to automorphic transformations and whose solutions are doubly periodic functions. There are only two possible single-valued solutions to this nonlinear partial differential equation and these correspond to lattices of points in the complex space, which are (a) corners of an array of equilateral triangles, and (b) corners of an array of isosceles right-angled triangles. The first solution was used in an earlier work to derive many static properties of nuclei. In this paper it is shown that the second solution gives binding energies of atoms in agreement of about 3% for the few experimental points that are available and also in good agreement with the binding energies of atoms obtained by the perturbation theory. It is also shown that this lattice under certain approximations is equivalent to a pure Coulomb law and the Bohr orbits of the hydrogen atom are correctly predicted. In obtaining the binding energies of atoms, no free parameters are required in the theory, except for the value of the binding energy of the He atom, as the theory is developed only for spinless systems. All other constants turn out to be fundamental constants.     

Hydrogen atom in the Friedman universe

Within the framework of general relativity the Dirac equation for the hydrogen atom is given in case of a spatially isotropic and homogeneous expanding space-time (Robertson Walker metric). In the special case of the static, closed 3-dimensional spherical space (Einstein Universe) we get a continuous energy spectrum for the H-atom.     

Reduced Dirac equation and Lamb shift as off-mass-shell effect in quantum electrodynamics

Based on the accurate experimental data of energy-level differences in hydrogen-like atoms, especially the 1S--2S transitions of hydrogen and deuterium, the necessity of introducing a reduced Dirac equation with reduced mass as the substitution of original electron mass is stressed. Based on new cognition about the essence of special relativity, we provide a reasonable argument for the reduced Dirac equation to have two symmetries, the invariance under the (newly defined) space--time inversion and that under the pure space inversion, in a noninertial frame. By using the reduced Dirac equation and within the framework of quantum electrodynamics in covariant form, the Lamb shift can be evaluated (at one-loop level) as the radiative correction on a bound electron staying in an off-mass-shell state---a new approach eliminating the infrared divergence. Hence the whole calculation, though with limited accuracy, is simplified, getting rid of all divergences and free of ambiguity.     

Energy states of colored particle in a chromomagnetic field

The unitary transformation which diagonalizes the squared Dirac equation in a constant chromomagnetic field is found. Applying this transformation, we find the eigenfunctions of the diagonalized Hamiltonian, that describes the states with a definite value of energy, and we call them energy states. It is pointed out that the energy states are determined by the color interaction term of the particle with the background chromofield, and this term is responsible for the splitting of the energy spectrum. We construct supercharge operators for the diagonal Hamiltonian that ensure the superpartner property of the energy states. PACS 03.65.-w An erratum to this article can be found at     

On the separability of relativistic electron propagators

In this contribution we examine the separability of relativistic electron propagators. Both, magnetic and non-magnetic systems are studied on the basis of the Kohn-Sham-Dirac equation. We find a Dirac-Green's function in excellent agreement with recent calculations utilizing the left and right-handed solutions to the Dirac equation. Starting from these Dirac-Green's functions we re-derive a rotation matrix formalism that was shown to result in separable scattering matrices in the non-relativistic case. It turns out, that spin-dependent scattering matrices can be formulated which are closely related to their non-relativistic counterparts. These matrices incorporate spin-flip and non spin-flip processes on an equal footing, but are irreducible to sums over composite rotation matrices. The latter result is a major drawback for numerical applications since electron scattering in terms of composite rotations had drawn a lot of attention recently. Received 1st July 1997     

二维氢原子的相对论修正

求解了二维氢原子的Ｄｉｒａｃ方程,得到了精确的相对论能级与波函数,并详细讨论了非相对论极限。     

Quaternion Dirac Equation and Supersymmetry

Quaternion Dirac equation has been analyzed and its supersymmetrization has been discussed consistently. It has been shown that the quaternion Dirac equation automatically describes the spin structure with its spin up and spin down components of two component quaternion Dirac spinors associated with positive and negative energies. It has also been shown that the supersymmetrization of quaternion Dirac equation works well for different cases associated with zero mass, nonzero mass, scalar potential and generalized electromagnetic potentials. Accordingly we have discussed the splitting of supersymmetrized Dirac equation in terms of electric and magnetic fields.     

Stability of Dirac Equation in Four-Dimensional Gravity

We introduce the Dirac equation in four-dimensional gravity which is a generally covariant form. We choose the suitable variable and solve the corresponding equation. To solve such equation and to obtain the corresponding bispinor, we employ the factorization method which introduces the associated Laguerre polynomial. The associated Laguerre polynomials help us to write the Dirac equation of four-dimensional gravity in the form of the shape invariance equation. Thus we write the shape invariance condition with respect to the secondary quantum number. Finally, we obtain the spinor wave function and achieve the corresponding stability of condition for the four-dimensional gravity system.