The rheological characterisation of bread dough using capillary rheometry

An Australian hard wheat flour–water dough has been characterised using parallel plate and capillary rheometers over an extensive range of apparent shear rates (10^− 3–10³ s^− 1) relevant to process conditions. Torsional measurements showed that the shear viscosity of the dough increased with strain to a maximum value and then decreased, suggesting a breakdown of the dough structure. Both torsional and capillary experiments revealed the shear-thinning behaviour of the dough. The wall slip phenomenon in capillary rheometry was investigated and found to be diameter dependent and occurred at a critical shear stress of approximately 5–10 kPa. A two-regime power law behaviour was observed, with the power law index approximately 0.3 in the low shear rate range increasing to 0.67 in the high shear rate range. Pressure fluctuation was observed in the capillary data and increased with shear rate, in particular, at shear rates approaching 10⁴ s^− 1. The results demonstrate that capillary rheometry is a viable means of rheologically testing dough at high shear rates provided pressure fluctuation is carefully monitored and capillary rheometry corrections, including wall slip, are accounted for.     

Experimental analysis of dynamic mechanical properties for artificially frozen clay by the split Hopkinson pressure bar

A device for impact compression experiments is the split Hopkinson pressure bar with a refrigerating attemperator. Data for incident and reflected waves are obtained by the measuring technique with strain gauges, and data for transmitted waves are obtained by the measuring technique with semiconductor gauges. Static compression tests of frozen clay are conducted at an identical temperature and different strain rates of 0.001 and 0.01 sec ⁻¹ . Dynamic stress-strain curves are obtained at strain rates of 360–1470 sec ⁻¹ . The low and high temperatures correspond to high and low strain rates, respectively. It is shown that both the temperature and strain rate affect the frozen soil deformation process. Different dynamic stress-strain curves obtained at the same temperature but different strain rates are found to converge. The test results indicate that frozen soil has both temperature-brittleness and impact-brittleness.     

Shear Failure of Inconel 718 under Dynamic Loads

Kinetics of deformation and fracture of nickel–iron alloy Inconel 718 under dynamic shear loading was measured using a split torsional Hopkinson bar facility and high-speed photography. Tubular specimens with a reduced gage length and a starter notch were sheared at strain rates up to 6 × 10³ s⁻¹. High-speed photographs of fiducial lines scribed on the specimen surface showed the development of local strains and cracking. This paper describes the experimental and analytical procedures, illustrates average and local plastic strain evolution, and presents shear crack initiation times and propagation speeds.     

Strength of water under pulsed loading

Experiments were performed to study the strength of water under conditions of pulsed extension, which is typical of the interaction between a triangular compression pulse and a free surface. The tests were performed in a wide (40–1000 MPa) range of rariation in the amplitude of the compression pulse at deformation rates of 10⁴−10⁵ sec⁻¹. It is found that as the compression-pulse amplitude increases from 150 to 1050 MPa, the strength of water decreases from 46 to 22 MPa. The deformation rate was found to have little effect on the strength. The possibility of using the model of homogenous nucleation (formation of cavitation nuclei) to interpret the data obtained is discussed. Institute of Chemical Physical, Russian Academy of Sciences, Chernogolovka 142432. Translated from Prikladmaya Mekhanika i Tekhnicheskaya Fizika, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 198–205, July–August, 2000.     

Determination of dynamic yield strengths with embedded manganin gages in plate-impact and long-rod experiments

The dynamic yield strengths of three steels were determined at strain rates of about 10³ s⁻¹ and 10⁶ s⁻¹. The measurements at 10³ s⁻¹ were obtained by a new technique based on measurements of large amplitude elastic waves in long bars struck by rigid flyer plates. Embedded manganin gages were used to measure stress, and the gage records were long enough to observe subsequent reverberations between the bar free end and the plastically deformed impact end. The measurements at 10⁶ s⁻¹ were made with a slightly modified version of a conventional flyer-plate impact configuration. The data are combined with static results to show the behavior of these steels at strain rates of 10⁻³ s⁻¹ to 10⁶ s⁻¹.     

Critical Stresses in Spalling and Dynamic Rupture of Metals

Results of dynamic rupture tests of a series of metals obtained using a composite Hopkinson bar and shock-wave loading of plane specimens are described. It is shown that the actual rupture strength at a strain rate of 5 · 10³ sec⁻¹ is very close to the spall strength at higher strain rates. Results of testing the same metals using a composite Hopkinson bar within a temperature range of 20–350°C are given. __________ Translated from Prikladnaya Mekhanika i Tekhnicheskaya Fizika, Vol. 46, No. 6, pp. 103–107, November–December, 2005.     

Torsional split Hopkinson bar tests at strain rates above 104s−1

The torsional split Hopkinson bar is used for testing materials at strain rates above 10⁴s⁻¹. This strain rate, which is an order of magnitude higher than is typical with this technique, is obtained by using very short specimens. Strain rates of 6.4×10⁴s⁻¹ have been achieved with specimens having a gage length of 0.1524 mm. Results from tests on 1100 aluminum show an increase in rate sensitivity as the strain rate increases.     

Physical relations for problems of impact loading and unsteady deformation of composite structures

A problem of determining elastic and viscous characteristics of composite materials, necessary and sufficient for choosing physical relations in solving problems of impact loading with low impact velocities (up to 200 m/sec) and unsteady deformation in the range of strain rates within 10 ² sec⁻¹ for multilayer beams, plates, and shells, is considered. __________ Translated from Prikladnaya Mekhanika i Tekhnicheskaya Fizika, Vol. 50, No. 1, pp. 187–196, January–February, 2009.     

High Strain Rate Torsion Properties of Ultrafine-Grained Aluminum

Mechanical properties of most metallic materials can be improved by reducing their grain size. One of the methods used to reduce the grain size even to the nanometer level is the severe plastic deformation processing. Equal Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP) is one of the most promising severe plastic deformation processes for the nanocrystallization of ductile metals. Nanocrystalline and ultrafine grained metals usually have significantly higher strength properties but lower tensile ductility compared to the coarse grained metals. In this work, the torsion properties of ECAP processed ultrafine grained pure 1070 aluminum were studied in a wide range of strain rates using both servohydraulic materials testing machines and Hopkinson Split Bar techniques. The material exhibits extremely high ductility in torsion and the specimens did not fail even after 300% of strain. Pronounced yield point behavior was observed at strain rates 500 s⁻¹ and higher, whereas at lower strain rates the yielding was continuous. The material showed slight strain softening at the strain rate of 10⁻⁴ s⁻¹, almost ideally plastic behavior at strain rates between 10⁻³ s⁻¹ and 500 s⁻¹, and slight but increasing strain hardening at strain rates higher than that. The tests were monitored using digital cameras, and the strain distributions on the surface of the specimens were calculated using digital image correlation. The strain in the specimen localized very rapidly after yielding at all strain rates, and the localization lead to the development of a shear band. At high strain rates the shear band developed faster than at low strain rates.     

Transfer model and kinetic characteristics of $${\rm NH}_{4}^{+}$$ –K+ ion exchange on K-zeolite

Based on the mass transfer theory, a new mass transfer model of ion-exchange process on zeolite under liquid film diffusion control is established, and the kinetic curves and the mass transfer coefficients of –K⁺ ion-exchange under different conditions were systemically determined using the shallow-bed experimental method. The results showed that the –K⁺ ion-exchange rates and transfer coefficients are directly proportional to solution flow rate and temperature, and inversely proportional to solution viscosity and the size of zeolite granules. It also showed that the transfer coefficient is not influenced by the ion concentrations. For a large ranges of operational conditions including temperatures (10 − 75°C), flow rates (0.031 m s⁻¹ −0.26 m s⁻¹), liquid viscosities (1.002 × 10⁻³ N s m⁻² − 4.44 × 10⁻³ N s m⁻²), and zeolite granular sizes (0.2 − 1.45 mm), the average mass transfer coefficients calculated by the model agree with the experimental results very well.     

Miniaturized Compression Test at Very High Strain Rates by Direct Impact

A modified miniaturized version of the Direct Impact Compression Test (DICT) technique is described in this paper. The method permits determination of the rate-sensitive plastic properties of materials up to strain rate ∼10⁵ s⁻¹. Miniaturization of the experimental setup with specimen dimensions: diameter d _S = 2.0 mm and thickness l _S = 1.0 mm, Hopkinson bar diameter 5.2 mm, with application of a novel optical arrangement in measurement of specimen strain, makes possible compression tests at strain rates from ∼10³ s⁻¹ to ∼10⁵ s⁻¹. In order to estimate the rate sensitivity of a low-alloy construction steel, quasi-static, Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB) and DICT tests have been performed at room temperature within the rate spectrum ranging from 5*10⁻⁴ s⁻¹ to 5*10⁴ s⁻¹. Adiabatic heating and friction effects are analyzed and the final true stress versus true strain curves at different strain rates are corrected to a constant temperature and zero friction. The results have been analyzed in the form of true stress versus the logarithm of strain rate and they show two regions of a constant rate sensitivity : relatively low up to the strain rate threshold ∼50 s⁻¹, and relatively high above the threshold, up to strain rate ∼4.5*10⁴ s⁻¹.     

A crystallographic model for the orientation dependence of low cyclic fatigue property of a nickel-base single crystal superalloy

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Flow-induced crystallization of high-density polyethylene: the effects of shear and uniaxial extension

The effects of shear, uniaxial extension and temperature on the flow-induced crystallization of two different types of high-density polyethylene (a metallocene and a ZN-HDPE) are examined using rheometry. Shear and uniaxial extension experiments were performed at temperatures below and well above the peak melting point of the polyethylenes in order to characterize their flow-induced crystallization behavior at rates relevant to processing (elongational rates up to 30 s^− 1 and shear rates 1 to 1,000 s^− 1 depending on the application). Generally, strain and strain rate found to enhance crystallization in both shear and elongation. In particular, extensional flow was found to be a much stronger stimulus for polymer crystallization compared to shear. At temperatures well above the melting peak point (up to 25°C), polymer crystallized under elongational flow, while there was no sign of crystallization under simple shear. A modified Kolmogorov crystallization model (Kolmogorov, Bull Akad Sci USSR, Class Sci, Math Nat 1:355–359, 1937) proposed by Tanner and Qi (Chem Eng Sci 64:4576–4579, 2009) was used to describe the crystallization kinetics under both shear and elongational flow at different temperatures.     

An appraisal of rheological models as applied to polymer melt flow

Summary An attempt is made at giving an appraisal of some representative rheological models of both differential and integral type, using the standard rheological measurements of six polymer melts. Experimental data obtained were the steady shear viscosity and the first normal stress difference by means of aWeissenberg rheogoniometer over the range of shear rates: 10^–2 ~ 10 sec^–1, and by means of aHan slit/capillary rheometer over the range of shear rates: 10 ~ 10³ sec^–1. Also measured by means of theWeissenberg rheogoniometer were the dynamic viscosity and dynamic elastic modulus over the range of frequencies: 0.3 × 10^–2 ~ 3 × 10² sec^–1. Rheological models chosen for an appraisal are theSpriggs 4-constant model, theMeister model, and theBogue model.It is found that the capability of the three models considered is about the same in their prediction of the rheological behavior of polymer melts in simple shearing flow. It is pointed out however that, due to the ensuing mathematical complexities, the usefulness of these models is limited to the study of flow problems associated with simple flow situations. Therefore, in analysing the complex flow situations often encountered with various polymer processings, the authors suggest use of the empirical models of the power-law type for both the viscosity and normal stress functions.With 11 figures, 4 schemas and 1 table     

Determination of the shear strength and modulus of water at low flow velocities

Damped inertial water flow in a cylindrical vessel is investigated. A return effect or "recoil" as the shear strain rate falks to a value of the order of 10⁻³s⁻¹ is observed. Over the range of low strain rates the water behaves like a medium with very low shear strength and a shear modulus of the order of 10⁻⁶ Pa. Ekaterinburg. Translated from Izvestiya Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk, Mekhanika Zhidkosti i Gaza, No. 1, pp. 3–7, January–February, 1997.     

Determination of stress-strain characteristics at very high strain rates

A modified version of the Kolsky thin-wafer technique is described. The method permits one to obtain the dynamic plastic properties of materials at strain rates as high as 10⁵ sec^?1. Data obtained from compression tests on high-purity aluminum are presented for strain rates ranging from 4000 to 120,000 sec^?1 at room temperature. Specimen-size effects and the effect of lateral inertia are taken into account in analyzing the data. The results plotted as stress vs. strain rate at constant strains (5 to 20 percent) show that, at the highest strain rates, the stress rises very rapidly with strain rate suggesting that a limiting strain rate is being reached. At the lower strain rates (10³ to 10⁴ sec^?1), the stress is linearly proportional to the strain rate indicating that the material is deforming in a viscous manner.     

Experimental study of vortex structures in a hypersonic shock layer on a flat plate

The characteristics of travelling perturbations of density in a hypersonic shock layer on a flat plate for the Mach number M_∞=21 and unit Reynolds numberRe ₁=6·10⁵ m⁻¹ were experimentally studied by the method of electron-beam fluorescence. The perturbations were generated by interaction of the shock layer behind an oblique gas-dynamic whistle and the leading edge of the plate. The cases of unsteady and quasi-steady interaction were considered. In both cases, vortex disturbances of finite amplitude were generated. The measurements were performed at the fundamental frequency F=0.6·10⁻⁴ and at the harmonic; the streamwise phase velocities, the growth rates of the disturbances, and the angles of wave propagation were obtained. The measurement results are compared with some experimental data for subsonic flows, some particular results of the linear stability theory for compressible flows, and the results obtained on the basis of a simple model of the nonlinear stage of disturbance evolution in a hypersonic boundary layer. Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Siberian Division, Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk 630090. Translated from Prikladnaya Mekhanika i Tekhnicheskaya Fizika, Vol. 40, No. 6, pp. 41–47, November–December, 1999.     

Behaviour of a simple crystallisation model in tube and channel flow

A formulation describing the rheology of crystallising polymers is discussed. For some semi-crystalline polymers where spherulites form as part of the crystallisation process, the use of a suspension-type model is appropriate. Whilst it is possible to so describe simple shearing and elongational rheology during on-going crystallisation with such models, the flow through a capillary tube is much more complex and numerical solution is usually necessary. To give some insight into this complex flow, a ‘step function’ or ‘amorphous-frozen’ model of the viscosity changes due to crystallisation has been devised so that a semi-analytical approach is feasible. We use this simple model and compare the results with recently published experiments in tubes and channels at high (O(10³ s^− 1)) shear rates using poly(butene-1). A direct correlation between simple shear and tube flow crystallisation onset times is found.     

Experimental Investigation of Strain Rate Dependence of Nanocrystalline Pt Films

A new microscale uniaxial tension experimental method was developed to investigate the strain rate dependent mechanical behavior of freestanding metallic thin films for MEMS. The method allows for highly repeatable mechanical testing of thin films for over eight orders of magnitude of strain rate. Its repeatability stems from the direct and full-field displacement measurements obtained from optical images with at least 25 nm displacement resolution. The method is demonstrated with micron-scale, 400-nm thick, freestanding nanocrystalline Pt specimens, with 25 nm grain size. The experiments were conducted in situ under an optical microscope, equipped with a digital high-speed camera, in the nominal strain rate range 10⁻⁶–10¹ s⁻¹. Full field displacements were computed by digital image correlation using a random speckle pattern generated onto the freestanding specimens. The elastic modulus of Pt, E = 182 ± 8 GPa, derived from uniaxial stress vs. strain curves, was independent of strain rate, while its Poisson’s ratio was v = 0.41 ± 0.01. Although the nanocrystalline Pt films had the elastic properties of bulk Pt, their inelastic property values were much higher than bulk and were rate-sensitive over the range of loading rates. For example, the elastic limit increased by more than 110% with increasing strain rate, and was 2–5 times higher than bulk Pt reaching 1.37 GPa at 10¹ s⁻¹.