Adsorption energetics of CO on supported Pd nanoparticles as a function of particle size by single crystal microcalorimetry

The heat of adsorption and sticking probability of CO on well-defined Pd nanoparticles were measured as a function of particle size using single crystal adsorption microcalorimetry. Pd particles of different average sizes ranging from 120 to 4900 atoms per particle (or from 1.8 to 8 nm) and Pd(111) were used that were supported on a model in situ grown Fe(3)O(4)/Pt(111) oxide film. To precisely quantify the adsorption energies, the reflectivities of the investigated model surfaces were measured as a function of the thickness of the Fe(3)O(4) oxide layer and the amount of deposited Pd. A substantial decrease of the binding energy of CO was found with decreasing particle size. Initial heat of adsorption obtained on the virtually adsorbate-free surface was observed to be reduced by about 20-40 kJ mol(-1) on the smallest 1.8 nm sized Pd particles as compared to the larger Pd clusters and the extended Pd(111) single crystal surface. This effect is discussed in terms of the size-dependent properties of the Pd nanoparticles. The CO adsorption kinetics indicates a strong enhancement of the adsorbate flux onto the metal particles due to a capture zone effect, which involves trapping of adsorbates on the support and diffusion to metal clusters. The CO adsorption rate was found to be enhanced by a factor of ～8 for the smallest 1.8 nm sized particles and by ～1.4 for the particles of 7-8 nm size.     

Silica supported nanopalladium prepared by hydrazine reduction

Palladium catalysts (1–10 wt.% Pd) supported on silica were prepared by hydrazine reduction of palladium chloride at room temperature. They were characterized by XRD, TEM, EDX, H₂-adsorption, and H₂-TPD and tested in the gas phase hydrogenation of benzene in the temperature range 75–250 °C. A conventional catalyst (1 wt.% Pd) obtained by calcination then hydrogen reduction of the same metal precursor was studied for comparison. Metal particles with a size range 6.8–28.4 nm were obtained. Dispersion, hydrogen storage and activity in benzene hydrogenation increased with decreasing particle size. In comparison, the classical catalyst was found much more dispersed (mean particle size of 1.6 nm) and more active (specific rate 1.6–3.7 times higher) than the homolog hydrazine catalyst. However, unexpectedly, turnover frequency (TOF) calculations indicated a greater reactivity of the metal surface atoms for the hydrazine catalyst. It also stored more hydrogen. These contrasting results are discussed in relation with the metal particle morphology.     

高(111)晶面暴露的Pd纳米颗粒的制备与表征及其加氢性能

通过液相氢气还原法,在不同温度下制备出了不同（111）晶面占比的Pd单晶纳米颗粒,用活性炭吸附制备成Pd/C纳米催化剂。通过透射电子显微镜（TEM）、傅里叶变换（FFT）、X射线衍射（XRD）表征证实了低温下制备的Pd纳米颗粒具有较高的（111）晶面占比。氢氧脉冲滴定（H₂-O₂）和H₂-程序升温脱附（H₂-TPD）结果显示,上述催化剂表面吸附氢气量与其Pd（111）晶面占比呈线性关系。此外,该系列Pd/C催化剂具有相似的粒径4.3 nm以及较窄的尺寸分布,相近的孔隙参数和Pd负载量,从而可对比（111）晶面比例差异对其加氢性能的影响。3个探针反应（苯乙烯、环己烯和对硝基甲苯的加氢反应）的实验结果表明,相比于低（111）晶面暴露比例的Pd/C催化剂,含有高（111）晶面暴露比例的Pd/C催化剂显示出更高的加氢活性,且Pd（111）晶面比例与氢气消耗速率呈一定的线性关系,这归因于H₂优先吸附于Pd（111）晶面促进了活性氢原子的形成。基于以上分析,高（111）晶面暴露的Pd基催化剂有利于加氢性能的提高。     

Fast and Non-equilibrium Uptake of Hydrogen by Pd Icosahedral Nanocrystals

We report for the first time that Pd nanocrystals can absorb H via a “single-phase pathway” when particles with a proper combination of shape and size are used. Specifically, when Pd icosahedral nanocrystals of 7- and 12-nm in size are exposed to H atoms, the H-saturated twin boundaries can divide each particle into 20 smaller single-crystal units in which the formation of phase boundaries is no longer favored. As such, absorption of H atoms is dominated by the single-phase pathway and one can readily obtain PdH_x with anyx in the range of 0–0.7. When switched to Pd octahedral nanocrystals, the single-phase pathway is only observed for particles of 7 nm in size. We also establish that the H-absorption kinetics will be accelerated if there is a tensile strain in the nanocrystals due to the increase in lattice spacing. Besides the unique H-absorption behaviors, the PdH_x (x=0–0.7) icosahedral nanocrystals show remarkable thermal and catalytic stability toward the formic acid oxidation due tothe decrease in chemical potential for H atoms in a Pd lattice under tensile strain.     

Properties of Pd–Ag/C catalysts in the reaction of selective hydrogenation of acetylene

Samples of Pd/C and Pd–Ag/C, where C represents carbon nanofibers (CNFs), are synthesized by methane decomposition on a Ni–Cu–Fe/Al₂O₃ catalyst. The properties of Pd/CNF are studied in the reaction of selective hydrogenation of acetylene into ethylene. It is found that the activity of the catalyst in hydrogenation reaction increases, while selectivity decreases considerably when the palladium content rises. The obtained dependences are caused by the features of palladium’s interaction with the carbon support. At a low Pd content (up to 0.04 wt %) in the catalyst, the metal is inserted into the interlayer space of graphite and the catalytic activity is zero. It is established by EXAFS that the main share of palladium in catalysts of 0.05–0.1 wt % Pd/CNF constitutes the metal in the atomically dispersed state. The coordination environment of palladium atoms consists of carbon atoms. An increase in the palladium content in a Pd/CNF catalyst up to 0.3 wt % leads to the formation of highly dispersed (0.8–1 nm) Pd particles. The Pd/CNF samples where palladium is mainly in the atomically dispersed state exhibit the highest selectivity in the acetylene hydrogenation reaction. The addition of silver to a 0.1 wt % Pd/CNF catalyst initially probably leads to the formation of Pd–Ag clusters and then to alloyed Pd–Ag particles. An increase in the silver content in the catalyst above 0.3% causes the enlargement of the alloyed particles and the palladium atoms are blocked by a silver layer, which considerably decreases the catalytic activity in the selective hydrogenation of acetylene.     

Hydrothermal growth of mesoporous SBA-15 silica in the presence of PVP-stabilized Pt nanoparticles: synthesis, characterization, and catalytic properties

A novel high surface area heterogeneous catalyst based on solution phase colloidal nanoparticle chemistry has been developed. Monodisperse platinum nanoparticles of 1.7-7.1 nm have been synthesized by alcohol reduction methods and incorporated into mesoporous SBA-15 silica during hydrothermal synthesis. Characterization of the Pt/SBA-15 catalysts suggests that Pt particles are located within the surfactant micelles during silica formation leading to their dispersion throughout the silica structure. After removal of the templating polymer from the nanoparticle surface, Pt particle sizes were determined from monolayer gas adsorption measurements. Infrared studies of CO adsorption revealed that CO exclusively adsorbs to atop sites and red-shifts as the particle size decreases suggesting surface roughness increases with decreasing particle size. Ethylene hydrogenation rates were invariant with particle size and consistent with a clean Pt surface. Ethane hydrogenolysis displayed significant structure sensitivity over the size range of 1-7 nm, while the apparent activation energy increased linearly up to a Pt particle size of approximately 4 nm and then remained constant. The observed rate dependence with particle size is attributed to a higher reactivity of coordinatively unsaturated surface atoms in small particles compared to low-index surface atoms prevalent in large particles. The most reactive of these unsaturated surface atoms are responsible for ethane decomposition to surface carbon. The ability to design catalytic structures with tunable properties by rational synthetic methods is a major advance in the field of catalyst synthesis and for the development of accurate structure-function relationships in heterogeneous reaction kinetics.     

Structure of small palladium particles studied by HRTEM

The structure of small palladium particles is investigated by HRTEM in order to know if structural variations, as a function of particles size, could explain some of the size effects encountered in heterogeneous catalysis. Small Pd particles are obtained by vacuum deposition on epitaxial MgO thin films. Imaging of the atomic planes down to a particle diameter of 1.8 nm shows that the particles are (100) (mainly) or (110) oriented on the substrate. Smallest particles (<2.5 nm) are perfectly fcc while some multiply-twinned particles are observed only for larger sizes.     

Selective Hydrogenation of Acrolein Over Pd Model Catalysts: Temperature and Particle‐Size Effects

The selectivity in the hydrogenation of acrolein over Fe₃O₄‐supported Pd nanoparticles has been investigated as a function of nanoparticle size in the 220–270 K temperature range. While Pd(111) shows nearly 100 % selectivity towards the desired hydrogenation of the C=O bond to produce propenol, Pd nanoparticles were found to be much less selective towards this product. In situ detection of surface species by using IR‐reflection absorption spectroscopy shows that the selectivity towards propenol critically depends on the formation of an oxopropyl spectator species. While an overlayer of oxopropyl species is effectively formed on Pd(111) turning the surface highly selective for propenol formation, this process is strongly hindered on Pd nanoparticles by acrolein decomposition resulting in CO formation. We show that the extent of acrolein decomposition can be tuned by varying the particle size and the reaction temperature. As a result, significant production of propenol is observed over 12 nm Pd nanoparticles at 250 K, while smaller (4 and 7 nm) nanoparticles did not produce propenol at any of the temperatures investigated. The possible origin of particle‐size dependence of propenol formation is discussed. This work demonstrates that the selectivity in the hydrogenation of acrolein is controlled by the relative rates of acrolein partial hydrogenation to oxopropyl surface species and of acrolein decomposition, which has significant implications for rational catalyst design.     

Particle size dependent adsorption and reaction kinetics on reduced and partially oxidized Pd nanoparticles

Combining scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), IR reflection absorption spectroscopy (IRAS) and molecular beam (MB) techniques, we have investigated particle size effects on a Pd/Fe(3)O(4) model catalyst. We focus on the particle size dependence of (i) CO adsorption, (ii) oxygen adsorption and (iii) Pd nanoparticle oxidation/reduction. The model system, which is based on Pd nanoparticles supported on an ordered Fe(3)O(4) film on Pt(111), is characterized in detail with respect to particle morphology, nucleation, growth and coalescence behavior of the Pd particles. Morphological changes upon stabilization by thermal treatment in oxygen atmosphere are also considered. The size of the Pd particles can be varied roughly between 1 and 100 nm. The growth and morphology of the Pd particles on the Fe(3)O(4)/Pt(111) film were characterized by STM and IRAS of adsorbed CO as a probe molecule. It was found that very small Pd particles on Fe(3)O(4) show a strongly modified adsorption behavior, characterized by atypically weak CO adsorption and a characteristic CO stretching frequency around 2130 cm(-1). This modification is attributed to a strong interaction with the support. Additionally, the kinetics of CO adsorption was studied by sticking coefficient experiments as a function of particle size. For small particles it is shown that the CO adsorption rate is significantly enhanced by the capture zone effect. The absolute size of the capture zone was quantified on the basis of the STM and sticking coefficient data. Finally, oxygen adsorption was studied by means of MB CO titration experiments. Pure chemisorption of oxygen is observed at 400 K, whereas at 500 K partial oxidation of the particles occurs. The oxidation behavior reveals strong kinetic hindrances to oxidation for larger particles, whereas facile oxidation and reduction are observed for smaller particles. For the latter, estimates point to the formation of oxide layers which, on average, are thicker than the surface oxides on corresponding single crystal surfaces.     

In situ Raman and in situ XRD analysis of PdO reduction and Pd° oxidation supported on γ-Al2O3 catalyst under different atmospheres

Reduction of Pd° and decomposition of palladium oxide supported on γ-alumina were studied at atmospheric pressure under different atmospheres (H(2), CH(4), He) over a 4 wt% Pd/Al(2)O(3) catalyst (mean palladium particle size: 5 nm with 50% of small particles of size below 5 nm). During temperature programmed tests (reduction, decomposition and oxidation) the crystal domain behaviour of the PdO/Pd° phase was evaluated by in situ Raman spectroscopy and in situ XRD analysis. Under H(2)/N(2), the reduction of small PdO particles (<5 nm) occurs at room temperature, whereas reduction of larger particles (>5 nm) starts at 100 °C and is achieved at 150 °C. Subsequent oxidation in O(2)/N(2) leads to reoxidation of small crystal domain at ambient temperature while oxidation of large particles starts at 300 °C. Under CH(4)/N(2), the small particle reduction occurs between 240 and 250 °C while large particle reduction is fast and occurs between 280 and 290 °C. Subsequent reoxidation of the catalyst reduced in CH(4)/N(2) shows that small and large particle oxidation of Pd° starts also at 300 °C. Under He, no small particle decomposition is observed probably due to strong interactions between particles and support whereas large particle reduction occurs between 700 and 750 °C. After thermal decomposition under He, the oxidation starts at 300 °C. Thus, the reduction phenomenon (small and large crystal domain) depends on the nature of the reducing agent (H(2), CH(4), He). However, whatever the reduction or decomposition treatment or the crystal domain, Pd° oxidation starts at 300 °C and is completed only at temperatures higher than 550 °C. Under lean conditions, with or without water, the palladium consists of reduced sites of palladium (Pd°, Pd(δ+) with δ < 2 or PdO(x) with x < 1) randomly distributed on palladium particles.     

Small Cobalt Nanoparticles Favor Reverse Water-Gas Shift Reaction Over Methanation Under CO2 Hydrogenation Conditions**

Cobalt-based catalysts are well-known to convert syngas into a variety of Fischer–Tropsch (FTS) products depending on the various reaction parameters, in particular particle size. In contrast, the reactivity of these particles has been much less investigated in the context of CO₂ hydrogenation. In that context, Surface organometallic chemistry (SOMC) was employed to synthesize highly dispersed cobalt nanoparticles (Co-NPs) with particle sizes ranging from 1.6 to 3.0 nm. These SOMC-derived Co-NPs display significantly different catalytic performances under CO₂ hydrogenation conditions: while the smallest cobalt nanoparticles (1.6 nm) catalyze mainly the reverse water-gas shift (rWGS) reaction, the larger nanoparticles (2.1–3.0 nm) favor the expected methanation activity. Operando X-ray absorption spectroscopy shows that the smaller cobalt particles are fully oxidized under CO₂ hydrogenation conditions, while the larger ones remain mostly metallic, paralleling the observed difference of catalytic performances. This fundamental shift of selectivity, away from methanation to reverse water-gas shift for the smaller nanoparticles is noteworthy and correlates with the formation of CoO under CO₂ hydrogenation conditions.     

Particle size effect on enantioselective hydrogenation of ethyl pyruvate over alumina-supported platinum catalyst

The effect of platinum particle size on the enantioselective hydrogenation of ethyl pyruvate to ethyl lactate in the liquid phase was studied using a series of Pt/γ-Al₂O₃ catalysts modified with cinchonidine.The catalysts containing 5 wt.% platinum were prepared by the incipient wetness technique with H₂PtCl₆ as precursor.Reduction at different temperatures, redispersion in air and sintering were employed to change the platinum dispersion from 0.27 to 0.6, corresponding to a particle size range of 1.7–4.0 nm.Within this particle size range, activity (expressed as initial turnover frequency) and enantioselectivity were higher for the larger particles. However, an increase in selectivity was not observed when the platinum particle size was increased by sintering. This indicates that the method applied for particle size control has an influence on the performance of the catalysts.     

Cobalt particle size effects in the Fischer-Tropsch reaction studied with carbon nanofiber supported catalysts

The influence of cobalt particle size in the range of 2.6-27 nm on the performance in Fischer-Tropsch synthesis has been investigated for the first time using well-defined catalysts based on an inert carbon nanofibers support material. X-ray absorption spectroscopy revealed that cobalt was metallic, even for small particle sizes, after the in situ reduction treatment, which is a prerequisite for catalytic operation and is difficult to achieve using traditional oxidic supports. The turnover frequency (TOF) for CO hydrogenation was independent of cobalt particle size for catalysts with sizes larger than 6 nm (1 bar) or 8 nm (35 bar), while both the selectivity and the activity changed for catalysts with smaller particles. At 35 bar, the TOF decreased from 23 x 10(-3) to 1.4 x 10(-3) s(-1), while the C5+ selectivity decreased from 85 to 51 wt % when the cobalt particle size was reduced from 16 to 2.6 nm. This demonstrates that the minimal required cobalt particle size for Fischer-Tropsch catalysis is larger (6-8 nm) than can be explained by classical structure sensitivity. Other explanations raised in the literature, such as formation of CoO or Co carbide species on small particles during catalytic testing, were not substantiated by experimental evidence from X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Interestingly, we found with EXAFS a decrease of the cobalt coordination number under reaction conditions, which points to reconstruction of the cobalt particles. It is argued that the cobalt particle size effects can be attributed to nonclassical structure sensitivity in combination with CO-induced surface reconstruction. The profound influences of particle size may be important for the design of new Fischer-Tropsch catalysts.     

Structure of the CO bond on supported Pd particles: influence of size and surface state

We have investigated the surface of supported palladium particles by static secondary ion mass spectrometry (SSIMS). Pd particles were grown in situ on alumi na (oxide layer and sapphire surfaces) and stabilized by heating treatment. The particle size, density and crystallographic structure were determined in previous studies by transmission electron microscopy and diffraction (TEM and TED). Various ionic species are detected by SSIMS analysis which makes it possible to characterize the CO absorbed layer: Pd _n CO⁺ (n=1, 2) for molecular adsorption and Pd _n C⁺ for CO dissociation. The size dependence of the bonding state of CO (linear, bridge, ...) was monitored by: PdCO⁺/σ _n Pd _n CO⁺ signal ratio over various size particles (mean diameter in the 2–9 nm range). Investigations were performed as a function of CO coverage (adsorption at room temperature) and also under CO dissociation conditions: heating under CO atmosphere or CO+O₂ (catalysis). The data analysis shows that on clean Pd particles smaller than 3 nm the CO molecules give rise mainly to PdCO⁺ species. We have interpreted this result by the adsorption of CO on two palladium atoms, the carbon end being tightly bonded to a low coordination Pd atom and the oxygen end weakly bonded to a neighbour Pd atom. These couples of Pd atoms form the specific sites for CO dissociation, the density of which depends on the roughness of the particle surface.     

Fabrication of Ultrafine Palladium Phosphide Nanoparticles as Highly Active Catalyst for Chemoselective Hydrogenation of Alkynes

Monodisperse palladium phosphide nanoparticles (Pd–P NPs) with a smallest size ever reported of 3.9 nm were fabricated using cheap and stable triphenylphosphine as phosphorous source. After the deposition and calcination at 300 °C and 400 °C, the resulting Pd–P NPs increased in size to 4.0 nm and 4.8 nm, respectively. Notably, the latter NPs probably crystallized with a single phase of Pd₃P_0.95, which acted as a highly active catalyst in semi‐ and stereoselective hydrogenation of alkynes. X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis determined a positive shift of binding energy for Pd(3d) in Pd–P NPs compared to that in Pd on carbon. It indicated the electron flow from metal to phosphorus and the larger electron deficiency of Pd in Pd–P NPs, which suppressed palladium hydride formation and subsequently increased the selectivity. Thus, this result may also indicate the applications of Pd–P and other metal–P NPs in various selective hydrogenation reactions.     

Selective hydrogenation of phenylacetylene on Ni and Ni-Pd catalysts modified with heteropoly compounds of the Keggin type

It is established that unmodified Ni catalysts and Ni catalysts modified with Mo- and W-heteropoly compounds (HPC) of the Keggin type (6 wt %) along with catalyst containing 6% K₄SiW₁₂O₄₀/Al₂O₃ appear to be active in the reaction of phenylacetylene (PA) hydrogenation. At low temperatures (100?C150°C), the selectivity of the process strongly depends on the nature of the modifier or second active metal (Pd). It is demonstrated that in the presence of 6% Ni-0.015% Pd/Al₂O₃ modified by HPC K₄SiMo₆W₆O₄₀, the conversion of PA at 100°C was 87% at a styrene: ethylbenzene ratio of 1: 1. The acidity of HPC is found to influence the side reactions of alkylation and condensation. Transmission electron microscopy demonstrates that Ni in modified HPC 6% Ni/Al₂O₃ is present in the form of the particles below 2 nm in size, and these particles of Ni become larger when affected by the reaction medium during PA hydrogenation.     

Growth mechanism of gold particles on Al2O3 substrates

We investigated the growth of small gold particles on thin alumina substrates obtained by oxidation of aluminum. The particles were vapor deposited in vacuum from a Knudsen cell source with a vapor rate of 1·10¹³ cm^?2·s^?1. In our experiments small Au particles on Al₂O₃ were examined by electron microscopy. From electron micrographs we draw a size histogram of Au particles depending on the mean deposit thickness and the deposition rate. For a mean thickness larger than 1.5 nm the particle size distributions show two peaks. The shapes and the positions of these two peaks allow us to determine the particle growth mechanism and to evidence the importance of the liquid-like coalescence resulting of diffusion and collision of the aggregates.     

聚苯乙烯邻氨基苯甲酸负载钯催化剂的加氢性能研究

含有双配位基的聚苯乙烯邻氨基苯甲酸与钯络合物反应制得螫合的配位高分子钯催化剂。用甲醇-水(pH=12)还原可得晶粒分布均匀的胶态钯催化剂,它们对烯烃的加氢具有良好的催化作用。研究表明,钯络合物上原有配体的给予性常数(E_n)与负载后络合催化剂的加氢活性具有良好的线性关系,金属粒径为40—50A的催化剂对己烯-1的加氢活性最高。本文还研究了溶剂极性,载体孔结构及底物对催化剂活性的影响。     

Selective hydrogenation of phenylacetylene on Pd/Al2O3: Effect of the addition of Pt and particle size

Phenylacetylene hydrogenation on Pd, Pt and Pd–Pt/Al₂O₃ catalysts has been studied. In all catalysts activity was found not to depend on particle size. However, selectivity to styrene was found to depend on Pd/Al₂O₃ catalysts. Carbon deposition in both metal and support explains such a behavior. Nevertheless, in small Pd particles a longer residence time of styrene may control the selectivity.