Characterization of a fiberoptic radiotherapy dosimetry probe based on Mg2SiO4:Tb

In this work the feasibility of using Mg₂SiO₄:Tb as a fiberoptic radioluminescent (RL) dosimetry probe for real-time dosimetry has been investigated for the first time. In particular, the stability of the RL signal after repeated use, the spectrum of the RL emission and the dose-rate response curve of a Mg₂SiO₄:Tb-based fiberoptic probe have been determined. The probe has been also used to obtain a percentage dose depth curve in a water phantom and its performance has been compared to that of a standard ion chamber. Besides, its absolute RL yield has been compared to that of an RL probe based on the commercial Al₂O₃:C phosphor.     

Characteristics of LiAlO2 – Radioluminescence and optically stimulated luminescence

Radioluminescence (RL) and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) results of LiAlO₂ were compared with Al₂O₃:C. For blue (470 nm) optical stimulation, RL + OSL signal in LiAlO₂ exhibited a sharp initial increase followed by a decay within the first 20 s of continuous wave (CW)-OSL and a very slow increase thereafter. The RL + OSL signal was about 1.25 times of its RL signal in LiAlO₂ as compared to 2.5 times in Al₂O₃:C. With the continued beta irradiation, the RL signal exhibited a faster growth in LiAlO₂ than that in Al₂O₃:C. Emission spectrum of LiAlO₂ exhibited multiple emission peaks in the range from 320 to 380 nm as against 410 nm of Al₂O₃:C. RL and OSL emission spectra were similar in both LiAlO₂ and Al₂O₃:C. The intense RL in LiAlO₂ (about 300 times of that of its background signal) for a beta ray dose rate of 4.6 mGy/s appears attractive for radiation dosimetry including real time/online dosimetry and dose mapping.     

Fiber-coupled radioluminescence dosimetry with saturated Al2O3:C crystals: Characterization in 6 and 18 MV photon beams

Radioluminescence (RL) and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) from carbon-doped aluminum oxide crystals can be used for medical dosimetry in external beam radiotherapy and remotely afterloaded brachytherapy. The RL/OSL signals are guided from the treatment room to the readout instrumentation using optical fiber cables, and in vivo dosimetry can be carried out in real time while the dosimeter probes are in the patient. The present study proposes a new improved readout protocol based solely on the RL signal from Al₂O₃:C. The key elements in the protocol are that Al₂O₃:C is pre-dosed with ∼20 Gy before each measurement session, and that the crystals are not perturbed by optical stimulation. Using 6 and 18 MV linear accelerator photon beams, the new RL protocol was found to have a linear dose-response from 7 mGy to 14 Gy, and dosimetry in this range could therefore be performed using a single calibration factor (∼6 × 10⁶ counts per Gy for a 2 mg crystal). The reproducibility of the RL dosimetry was 0.3% (one relative standard deviation) for doses larger than 0.1 Gy. The apparent RL sensitivity was found to change with accumulated dose ((−0.45 ± 0.03)% per 100 Gy), crystal temperature ((−0.21 ± 0.01)%/ °C), and dose-delivery rate ((−0.22 ± 0.01)% per 100 MU/min). A temporal gating technique was used for separation of RL and stem signals (i.e. Cerenkov light and fluorescence induced in the optical fiber cable during irradiation). The new readout protocol was a substantial improvement compared with the combined RL/OSL protocol, that required relatively long readout times and where the optical stimulation greatly affected the RL sensitivity. The only significant caveat was the apparent change in RL-response with accelerator dose-delivery rate.     

Medical dosimetry using a RL/OSL prototype

A portable and robust instrument has been developed for the routine assessment of patient exposure to ionizing radiation during radiotherapy treatments. The design principles of hardware and software are described, along with preliminary measurements that illustrate the operation of the system and its capabilities. In this study the authors used radioluminescence (RL) and Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) from Al₂O₃:C detectors coupled to a PMMA optical fibre to acquire dose in medical dosimetry. The RL/OSL prototype can provide two independent dose estimates from the same in vivo treatment: one integrated dose estimate (OSL) and one real-time dose estimate (RL), which can be compared to one another. The authors first characterized the dose–response to a calibration source (¹³⁷Cs), analysing the OSL and the RL signal to doses from 0.5 to 3 Gy. Later the percentage dose depth from RL is presented for two gamma (6 and 15 MV) and two electron (6 and 12 MeV) medical beams.     

Development of a 2D dosimetry system based on the optically stimulated luminescence of Al2O3

A laser-scanning 2D dosimetry system based on the Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) signal from Al₂O₃ films was built and demonstrated. The main challenge of using the OSL from Al₂O₃ for 2D dosimetry by laser scanning is the long lifetime (∼35 ms) of the main luminescence centers in this material (F-centers). In this work, we demonstrated the possibility of performing 2D dosimetry by laser scanning using a combination of the fast UV emission of F⁺-centers (lifetime <7 ns) and the slow F-center emission of Al₂O₃:C, and an algorithm to correct for the slow F-center luminescence lifetime. We also investigated the possibility of using Al₂O₃:C,Mg, to take advantage of its greater F⁺-center emission compared to Al₂O₃:C. Results from 6 MV photon beam irradiations from a clinical linear accelerator were compared to radiographic and radiochromic film profiles showing a good qualitative agreement.     

Optically stimulated luminescence from CaSO4:Eu – Preliminary results

A new OSL phosphor CaSO₄:Eu was developed. The phosphor shows good OSL sensitivity which is about 55% of commercially available Al₂O₃:C. The phosphor also shows good TL sensitivity and the dosimetric peak, which appears around 186 °C, has sensitivity nearly 50% of Al₂O₃:C. After OSL readout of the irradiated sample, the TL peak around 250 °C depletes completely, with partial depletion of peak around 186 °C. Since the traps responsible for the high temperature peak are involved for the observed OSL, the sample shows low post-irradiation fading. The OSL decay is similar to Al₂O₃:C. Thus this phosphor due to its good OSL sensitivity, linear dose response, low fading and simple preparation technique could be useful for radiation dosimetry applications.     

Characterization of a Ce3+ doped SiO2 optical dosimeter for dose measurements in HDR brachytherapy

Aim of this work was to study the application of a new miniaturized Ce³⁺ doped SiO₂ scintillation detector to in vivo dosimetry in high dose rate brachytherapy. Energy, dose-rate, temperature and angular dependences of the detector response to ¹⁹²Ir HDR brachytherapy fields were investigated, as well as sensitivity reproducibility and linearity. To this aim, two ad hoc phantoms were designed and developed to perform measurements in water. Intra-session reproducibility resulted to be very high, however inter-session reproducibility showed too high statistical variation. Detector response resulted to increase linearly with dose (R² = 0.997), with no evidence of energy and dose-rate dependence. Sensitivity resulted to increase linearly with temperature (R² = 0.995), with a 0.2% increase each °C. Finally, no significant angular dependence for the source moving around a circle in the azimuthal plane centered at the scintillator was observed. The obtained results show that the proposed detector is suitable for in vivo real-time dosimetry in high dose rate brachytherapy.     

Thermoluminescence characterization of the Cu(Tb,Tm)-12CaO-7AL2O3 compounds obtained by combustion synthesis

The thermoluminescence (TL) properties of dode-calcium hepta-aluminate (Ca₁₂Al₁₄O₃₃) enabled by 12CaO-7Al₂O₃ doped with rare earth and transitions metals ions have been studied and their suitability for radiation dosimetry applications is discussed. It was observed that this calcium aluminate phase doped with Tm-Cu at concentration of 0.1 mol% is a good candidate for dosimetric applications since it presents well-defined single peak observed at 240 °C and 320 °C and a linear response to gamma radiation dose from 5 × 10⁻³ Gy up to 100 Gy.     

Nanophosphor aluminum oxide: Luminescence response of a potential dosimetric material

This work reports on the investigation of the radiation dosimetry properties of Al₂O₃ nanopowders. Samples were produced by solution combustion synthesis using three different organic fuels to check for the effect of synthesis conditions on the properties of interest. Luminescence characteristics were studied by thermoluminescence and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) techniques. We found that samples produced using urea have characteristics similar to bulk Al₂O₃:C and may be suitable for personal dosimetry, while samples produced using glycine and hexamethylenetetramine (HMT) may be more suitable for applications where fast OSL decay is advantageous. While these results are promising and warrant further investigation, much has to be done to overcome the greatly decreased luminescence intensity of the nanomaterials as compared to bulk Al₂O₃:C.     

Comparison between blue and green stimulated luminescence of Al2O3:C

This paper presents a systematic comparison of OSL signals from Al₂O₃:C when stimulated with blue and green light. Al₂O₃:C detectors were irradiated with various doses and submitted to various bleaching regimes using yellow, green and blue light. Most of the investigations were carried out using Luxel?-type detectors used in the commercial Luxel? and InLight? dosimetry systems (Landauer Inc.). Al₂O₃:C single crystals and Al₂O₃:C powder were also used to complement the investigations. The results show that, although blue stimulation provides faster readout times (OSL curves that decayed faster) and higher initial OSL intensity than green stimulation, blue stimulation introduced complicating factors. These include incomplete bleaching of the dosimetric trap when the Al₂O₃:C detectors are bleached with yellow or green light and the OSL is recorded with blue light stimulation, and an increased residual level due to stimulation of charge carriers from deep traps. The results warrant caution when using blue stimulation to measure the OSL signal from Al₂O₃:C detectors, particularly if the doses involved are low and the detectors have been previously exposed to high doses.     

Preliminary study on development and characterization of high sensitivity LiAlO2 optically stimulated luminescence material

Preliminary results of an attempt to prepare LiAlO₂ material with high optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) sensitivity are reported. LiAlO₂ was prepared by melting a stoichiometric mixture of Li₂CO₃ and Al₂O₃ powders in a RF heating furnace. CW-OSL signal as recorded on Risoe TL/OSL reader using blue (470 nm) stimulation was found to be up to 16 times of that of Al₂O₃:C. The promising characteristics of LiAlO₂, open up a possibility of an improved material not only for passive dosimetry of mixed fields of neutron and gamma rays but also for online measurements and dose mapping/imaging applications.     

Luminescence characterisation of alumina substrates using cathodoluminescence microscopy and spectroscopy

Polycrystalline alumina (Al₂O₃) substrates, found in many electronic devices and proposed as dosemeters in emergency situations, were invstigated using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with cathodoluminescence (CL) and elemental analysis probes. The characteristics of the CL spectra, surface morphology, and impurity content of the Al₂O₃ substrates were examined and compared with those of single crystal dosimetry-grade Al₂O₃:C. Whereas the CL spectrum, measured from 250 to 800 nm, for the Al₂O₃:C, contained resolved bands located at ∼340 nm and at ∼410 nm, the spectrum measured with the Al₂O₃ substrate was significantly broader, extending from ∼250 to ∼450 nm, and also included a narrow band at 695 nm. While it is likely that the accepted model of recombination at F⁺ (∼340 nm) and F (∼410 nm) in Al₂O₃:C also applies to the substrate, it is suggested that the presence of impurities within the alumina give rise to additional recombination centres. The 695 nm emission has been assigned to a Cr³⁺ ion impurity in previous work on alumina and a band indicated at ∼300 nm may be associated with Mg²⁺ or Ca²⁺_, the presence of which was confirmed by elemental mapping. Comparison of the spatial distribution of CL with the surface morphology and elemental composition of the samples indicates that the components of the emission spectrum can be qualitatively correlated with impurity content and morphological features of the samples.     

Crystallization and conductivity of 2CaO–La2O3–5P2O5 glass–ceramic with Al2O3 addition

Al₂O₃ was added to a 2CaO–La₂O₃–5P₂O₅ metaphosphate, to replace 10% of the Ca²⁺ ions by Al³⁺, forming a phosphate with the nominal composition 1.8CaO–0.1Al₂O₃–La₂O₃–5P₂O₅. The effect of Al₂O₃ addition and heat treatment on the microstructure and conductivity of the resulting glass–ceramics was investigated by XRD, SEM, TEM, and AC impedance spectroscopy. Upon transformation from glass to glass–ceramic, conductivities increased significantly. The glasses were isochronally transformed at 700 and at 800 °C for 1 h or 5 h, in air, following heating at 3 or 10 °C/min. With Al₂O₃ addition, after a heat treatment at 700 °C, 100–300 nm nano-domains of LaP₃O₉ crystallized from the glass matrix. Annealing at 800 °C produced a further order of magnitude conductivity increase for the Al-free glass, but less so for the Al-containing glass.     

Al2O3:C optically stimulated luminescence droplets: Characterization and applications in medical beams

Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) detectors, which are widely used in radiation protection, offer a number of potential advantages for radiotherapy dosimetry. In this study we characterized 1-μl of OSL droplets consisting of a mixture of Al₂O₃:C powder and a photo-curable polymer, in addition to results described in a previous work (Nascimento et al., 2013). The concentration test showed that droplets have a higher spatial resolution than other commonly used Al₂O₃:C-based detectors. Our results from the dose response, reproducibility and dependence with accumulative dose were obtained for droplets with a powder/polymer concentration that showed a high Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) without compromising the droplet malleability. Additional test results show the response of such droplets in percentage depth dose curves and dose profiles of clinical beams.     

Thermoluminescence of Al2O3:Cr3+ films synthesized by the nonaqueous sol–gel method

The thermoluminescence (TL) properties of Al₂O₃:Cr³⁺ thin films prepared by the nonaqueous sol–gel method were evaluated. The obtained thin films were characterized by scanning electron microscope and energy dispersive spectrometry. They were irradiated with ⁶⁰Co gamma rays of the different doses. TL glow curves exhibited two peaks centered at 197°C and 322°C.The heights of peaks were found to be sensitive to exposures of ionizing irradiation and the integral area of the TL signals had a linear response in the dose range of 5–60 Gy.This remarkable result suggests that Al₂O₃:Cr³⁺ films might potentially be used for radiation dosimetry.     

Sonochemical synthesis of supersaturated Ga–Al liquid-alloy fine particles and Al3+-doped γ-Ga2O3 nanoparticles by direct oxidation at near room temperature

In this study, we investigated the fabrication of supersaturated gallium (Ga)–aluminum (Al) liquid alloy and Al³⁺-doped γ-Ga₂O₃ nanoparticles (NPs) at near room temperature (60 °C) using sonochemical and sonophysical effects. Supersaturated Ga–Al liquid alloy microparticles (D_av = 1.72 µm) were formed and stabilized at 60 °C by the thermal nonequilibrium field provided by sonochemical hot spots. Compared with liquid Ga, supersaturated Ga–Al liquid alloy was rapidly oxidized to a uniform oxide without Al₂O₃ or Al deposition. Thus, ultrafine Al³⁺-doped γ-Ga₂O₃ NPs were obtained after only 1 h of ultrasonic irradiation at 60 °C. The oxidation of liquid Ga was remarkably accelerated by alloying with metallic Al and ultrasonic irradiation, and the time was shortened. The average diameter and surface area of the γ-Ga₂O₃-based NPs were 59 nm and 181 m²/g, respectively. Compared with γ-Ga₂O₃, the optical bandgap of the Al³⁺-doped γ-Ga₂O₃ NPs was broadened, and the thermal stability improved, indicating Al³⁺-doping into the γ-Ga₂O₃ lattice. However, the lattice constant of γ-Ga₂O₃ was almost unchanged with or without Al³⁺-doping. Al³⁺ was introduced into the defect sites of Ga³⁺, which were massively induced in the defective spinel structure during ultrasonic processing. Therefore, sonochemical processing, which provides nonequilibrium reaction fields, is suitable for the synthesis of supersaturated and metastable materials in metals and ceramics fields.     

Basic thermoluminescent and dosimetric properties of Al2O3:C irradiated by pulse intensive electron beam

The effect of deep traps filled by a pulse electron beam on the thermoluminescent (TL) properties in Al₂O₃:C dosimetric crystals is studied. When the deep traps are filled, the dosimetric peak at 170 °C acquires a double-peak structure not present in the initial samples. The effect of the population of the deep centers having various nature (electron or hole traps) and energy depth on the shape of the dosimetric TL peak structure is analyzed. An assumption is made that in the temperature ranges of 350–500 °C and 650–750 °C, electron traps are emptied, whereas at T = 500–650 °C hole traps are emptied. The possibility of using the TL associated with deep traps in high-dose dosimetry of pulse electron beams is shown.     

Simple identification of Al2O3 and MgO·Al2O3 spinel inclusions in steel using X-ray-excited optical luminescence

Nonmetallic inclusions in steel cause problems in steel products and steel production. In particular, an analysis of Al₂O₃ and MgO·Al₂O₃ spinel inclusions is important since they are one of the most harmful inclusions. A rapid and simple analysis of nonmetallic inclusions is required as the conventional analytical methods for nonmetallic inclusions are time-consuming. In this study, we propose a simple method to identify Al₂O₃ and MgO·Al₂O₃ spinel inclusions in steels. X-ray-excited optical luminescence (XEOL) analysis was selected as a promising method because it can rapidly identify sizes, shapes, and compositions of nonmetallic inclusions and can be performed in air. A model steel sample prepared by heating a mixture of Fe, Al, and MgO powders at 1550°C in argon atmosphere was used. XEOL images of the model steel sample showed that Al₂O₃ inclusions emitted blue and red luminescences. Using a filter attached to the camera, blocking light in the wavelength region above 650 nm, only the blue luminescence of the Al₂O₃ inclusions was observed. This was implemented as the luminescences of the Al₂O₃ inclusions appeared in both blue and red regions at wavelengths of 350, 485, 695, and 750 nm; consequently, the luminescences at 695 nm and 750 nm were blocked by the filter. In contrast, MgO·Al₂O₃ spinel inclusions emitted green luminescence (peak at 520 nm), unaffected by the filter. This indicates that we can simply identify Al₂O₃ and MgO·Al₂O₃ spinel inclusions by an XEOL image in the wavelength range of 420–650 nm.     

Characterisation of a real-time fibre-coupled beryllium oxide (BeO) luminescence dosimeter in X-ray beams

For the first time the feasibility of using beryllium oxide (BeO) ceramics as a fibre-coupled radioluminescent dosimeter is investigated. BeO ceramic exhibits both radioluminescence (RL) and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL), and has the potential to be a near tissue equivalent alternative to Al₂O₃:C. A BeO fibre-coupled radioluminescence dosimeter is demonstrated and characterised for 6 MV X-rays and superficial X-ray energies, 150 kVp and 120 kVp. Based on the results, we demonstrate the capability of the RL BeO FOD for accurate and reproducible dose measurements with a linear dose rate and dose response. It has also been found that the percentage depth dose curves for 6 MV agreed with ion chamber measurements to within 2%, except in the build up region. For the 150 kVp and 120 kVp photon beams, the depth dose measurements agreed with ion chamber measurements to within 2.5% and 4%, respectively.     

High‐perfomance Ce‐doped multicomponent garnet single crystalline film scintillators

We report for the first time the optimized content and excellent scintillation properties of single crystalline film (SCF) scintillators of multicomponent Gd_3–xLu_x Al_5–yGa_y O₁₂:Ce garnet compounds grown by liquid phase epitaxy (LPE) method. The Gd_1.5Lu_1.5Al_2.75Ga_2.25O₁₂:Ce and Gd₃Al_2.75–2Ga_2.25–3O₁₂:Ce SCF show the light yield (LY) comparable with that of high‐quality bulk crystal analogues of these garnets but faster scintillation decay and very low thermoluminescence in the above room temperature range. To our knowledge, these SCF possess the highest LY values ever obtained in LPE grown garnet SCF scintillators exceeding by at least 1.5–1.6 times the values previously reported for SCF scintillators.