镍催化非活化烷基亲电试剂与二氧化碳的直接羧化反应(英文)

二氧化碳是一种储量丰富且廉价易得的可再生性碳一资源。化学工作者建立起来的一系列过渡金属催化的CO_2作为羧化试剂的新反应方法学,成功地将CO_2高效转化成在精细有机合成中有着重要用途的羧酸及其衍生物等高附加值的化学品.CO_2通常作为亲电试剂或环加成底物与各种亲核试剂或含不饱和键的化合物进行反应.最近,过渡金属催化的两种不同亲电试剂的还原交叉偶联反应作为一种构建碳-碳键的直接而有效的新方法受到了研究者的极大关注.此种方法不同于传统的交叉偶联反应,不再使用难以制备且对水和氧敏感的金属有机化合物,原料易得且操作非常简便.其中亲电试剂与CO_2的直接还原羧化反应便是一种合成功能羧酸的更绿色的新方法.Martin课题组之前报道了首例钯催化的芳基溴代物与CO_2的还原羧化反应.Tsuji课题组也发现了反应条件更温和的镍催化的芳基或烯基氯代物与CO_2的直接羧化反应.随后Martin课题组发展了苄基氯代物、芳基或苄基酯、烯丙基酯等一系列亲电试剂直接还原羧化反应.而对于含有β氢的非活化烷基亲电试剂,由于其不易进行氧化加成反应,同时原位形成的烷基金属试剂容易进行β氢消除及二聚等副反应,使得这类底物参与的直接还原羧化反应极具挑战性.最近,Martin课题组在含有β氢的非活化烷基亲电试剂与CO_2的还原羧化反应研究方面取得了突破.使用锰粉作为还原剂,氯化镍乙二醇二甲醚配合物与2,9-二乙基-1,10-邻菲罗啉配体组成的催化体系能有效抑制β氢消除及二聚等副反应,在室温及常压条件下便可高效地将一系列含有β氢的非活化烷基溴代物转化成相应的羧酸.此催化体系的底物适用性很宽,酯基、氰基、缩醛、醛、酮甚至醇羟基和酚羟基等活泼基团都能被容忍.他们应用此反应成功实现了具有生物活性的羧酸小分子化合物的一步合成.虽然确切的反应机理目前还不够清楚,但初步的实验表明催化循环中可能包含一价镍物种参与的单电子转移过程.基于此反应体系,他们随后也实现了包含炔基官能团的非活化烷基溴代物与CO_2的还原环化/羧化串联反应,环状α,β-不饱和羧酸产品的顺反构型可以很容易地通过底物及配体的选择进行控制.总之,Martin课题组发展的镍催化体系在温和条件下实现了含有β氢的非活化烷基亲电试剂与CO_2的还原羧化反应.此反应底物适用性宽,原料易得,操作简便,为合成功能团羧酸提供了一种行之有效的方法.此反应的成功也极大扩展了还原交叉偶联反应的底物适用范围.随着机理研究的深入,更多新型高效的非活化烷基亲电试剂与CO_2的还原羧化反应将会出现.     

电羧化苯乙烯基苯基酮合成2,4-二苯基-4-丁酮酸

研究了常压下以CO2和苯乙烯基苯基酮为原料的电羧化反应. 在一室型电解池中, 用Mg作为辅助电极, 不锈钢、铜、镍、钛、石墨电极等作为工作电极, Ag/AgI为参比电极, 恒电位电解苯乙烯基苯基酮和CO2可得到产物2,4-二苯基-4-丁酮酸. 为提高电解产率, 优化了电解条件, 对影响该反应的溶剂、支持盐、阴极材料、电解电位、底物浓度和温度等因素作了进一步讨论. 实验结果表明, 不同的电解条件下, 苯乙烯基苯基酮的还原性能存在较大差异. 通过变化规律的研究, 找到了各个影响因素的最佳条件为: 反应温度为0 ℃, MeCN作为溶剂, 0.1 mol•L－1 四乙基四氟硼酸铵为支持盐, 不锈钢电极为工作电极, Mg棒为辅助电极, 电解电位是－1.75 V. 在此条件下恒电位电解, 2,4-二苯基-4-丁酮酸的产率可达88%. 在乙腈中还研究了苯乙烯基苯基酮的电化学行为, 推测其电羧化反应经历一个电子传递反应-化学反应-电子传递反应-化学反应(ECEC)过程.     

电羧化:一种固定CO_2制备有机羧酸的有效途径

温室气体CO_2的绿色高效转化利用是当前的研究热点.其中,有机物的电化学羧化反应是CO_2利用的有效途径.温和条件(常温常压)下,有机底物电还原生成的碳负离子可以捕获体系中的CO_2,进而合成具有高附加值的有机羧酸类化合物.本文重点介绍了作者课题组在电羧化反应方面的研究进展,包括各类电活性基团物质的电羧化反应以及不对称电羧化反应.     

电化学方法固定CO2用于2-羟基-2-(4-甲氧基苯基)-丙酸甲酯的合成

在一室型电解池中, 以饱和CO₂的N,N-二甲基甲酰胺(DMF)为溶液, Mg为牺牲阳极, 不锈钢、钛、铜、镍和银为工作电极, 通过电化学方法固定CO₂, 在恒电流电解的条件下研究了对甲氧基苯乙酮的电羧化反应, 得到了重要的有机合成中间体2-羟基-2-(4-甲氧基苯基)-丙酸甲酯. 电羧化产率受支持电解质种类、电极材料、电流密度、电解电量和反应温度等影响. 经过反应条件的优化, 目标产物在恒定电流密度为5.0 mA/cm²的条件下产率达到63%. 同时, 以玻碳电极-Pt丝螺旋电极-Ag/AgI/I^-为三电极体系, 研究了对甲氧基苯乙酮的电化学行为, 根据底物在通入CO₂前后循环伏安图的变化推测了对甲氧基苯乙酮的电羧化反应机理.     

含硝基咔唑类有机电催化剂的合成及其对醇的电催化氧化

有机小分子的电催化氧化是催化领域的一个重要研究内容.通过醇的选择性氧化合成相应醛或酮类化合物在精细化学品和有机化学中间体的合成领域均具有十分重要的意义.有机电催化合成用电子代替强氧化还原剂,可以使反应在比较温和的条件下进行.但在直接电氧化合成反应中,电极表面容易生成有机聚合物膜,使电极钝化,电流效率急剧下降.而在电子转移媒质作用下的有机电催化反应不仅可以避免电极表面钝化,还可以控制目标产物的过度氧化.三芳胺类化合物是一类新型的电氧化还原媒质,由于其具有较宽的电化学氧化还原电位已引起研究者的广泛关注.咔唑类化合物相比于三芳胺类具有更好的平面性,使得取代基效应更为显著.咔唑类化合物被广泛作为荧光材料,但用于电化学方面的研究很少.本文通过在咔唑类化合物中引入具有强吸电子性的硝基以提高该类化合物的氧化电位,并将其作为有机电催化媒质,采用间接电化学氧化的方式,在室温下研究醇的电化学催化氧化反应,合成相应醛类化合物.
　　我们合成了三种含硝基咔唑类有机电催化剂,通过1H NMR对其结构进行了鉴定.采用循环伏安法测试了该类有机电催化剂的电化学氧化还原性能.发现取代基的电子效应对有机电催化剂的氧化还原电位及电化学氧化还原可逆性有很大的影响,供电子基(–OCH3)的引入使氧化电位负移(0.717 V),吸电子基(–Br)的引入使氧化电位明显正移(1.282 V).同时,取代基的引入有效改善了有机电催化剂的电化学可逆性,从而可以作为有效的电氧化还原媒质应用于电化学氧化反应中.而当把化合物中的NO2还原为NH2后,咔唑类化合物的电化学氧化还原可逆性完全消失,表明硝基的引入对咔唑类有机电催化剂的电化学性能有很大的影响.
　　循环伏安结果发现,在咔唑类硝基化合物的作用下,对甲氧基苯甲醇(p-MBzOH)的电化学氧化峰电位从1.350 V降至1.286 V,表明可以在较低电位下进行电解,有效降低了电氧化反应的能耗,同时氧化峰电流明显增加,说明该类有机电催化剂对p-MBzOH具有良好的电催化性能.随着p-MBzOH浓度的增加,氧化峰电流也明显增大,说明在咔唑类有机电催化剂的作用下, p-MBzOH可以在比较高的浓度下进行电化学氧化电解.通过对不同对位取代基的苯甲醇类化合物进行循环伏安研究,发现含硝基咔唑类化合物对具有较高氧化电位的反应底物均表现出良好的电催化氧化性能.
　　在含硝基咔唑类有机电催化剂的氧化电位(1.28 V)和室温下,对不同浓度的p-MBzOH进行恒电位电解6 h,发现当催化剂的用量为底物的2.5 mol%时, p-MBzOH可以完全转化为相应的醛类目标产物.而且恒电位电解后分离回收的含硝基咔唑类有机电催化剂仍具有良好的电化学氧化还原可逆性.     

乙腈体系中咪唑溴盐和电制镁盐协同促进环氧化物与 CO2羧化反应合成环状碳酸酯

CO2是一种储量丰富且廉价易得的可再生 C1资源.以 CO2为原料的羧化反应可将 CO2高效转化成羧酸及其衍生物等高附加值化学品.例如, CO2和环氧化物反应生成环状碳酸酯属于“原子经济”反应,是有效利用 CO2的方法之一,其产物环状碳酸酯广泛用于极性有机溶剂、电池电解液和化妆品等.由于 CO2化学性质非常稳定,不易活化,制备环状碳酸酯的传统方法是以金属卤化物或金属配合物为催化剂在高温高压下进行反应.因此,开发出操作简便且能耗低的绿色技术用于合成环状碳酸酯面临巨大挑战.
　　最近研究表明,电催化技术可使环氧化物和 CO2在温和条件下转化为环状碳酸酯.已报道的电催化反应研究重点都是如何通过多相或均相电催化还原 CO2的方式使环氧化物能够在温和条件下进行羧化反应.然而, CO2电还原生成的 CO2?-自由基非常活泼,在其扩散到溶液中与环氧化物反应之前易在电极上直接转化为 CO和碳酸盐等副产物,从而导致羧化反应较低的电流效率.
　　 Ema课题组报道环氧化物与 CO2羧化反应经历三个步骤,即开环反应、CO2插入反应和闭环反应,其中开环反应活化能最大,是羧化反应决速步骤.与已报道的电催化途径不同,本文通过建立一个由电化学反应和羧化反应组成的催化反应体系,旨在通过降低开环反应活化能来促进环氧化物羧化反应.在电化学反应过程中,由牺牲阳极提供羧化反应必需的路易斯酸,即电制镁盐;在羧化反应过程中,通过电制镁盐和咪唑溴盐的协同作用实现环氧化物和 CO2在温和条件下高效率地转化为环状碳酸酯.
　　实验首先选取环氧苯乙烷为反应原料,考察了电制镁盐、共催化剂的阳离子以及羧化反应温度对目标产物产率的影响.如果羧化反应过程中没有镁盐或直接用等量溴化镁代替电制镁盐,羧化产率仅为5.4%和35.5%,而电制镁盐条件下羧化反应产率高达90.7%,表明电制镁盐作为路易斯酸催化剂对提高羧化反应产率是必不可少的.比较了在 N2和 CO2气氛中分别电解制备得到的镁盐的催化性能. N2气氛中电制镁盐更高的催化性能可能与溶剂乙腈或支持电解质的阳离子在阴极发生电还原生成的物质有关.该电还原产物可部分代替溴离子与电制镁盐配对,由于其体积更大,一定程度上提高了电制镁盐的亲电性,有利于羧化反应进行.如果用四丁基溴化铵代替咪唑溴盐作为共催化剂,羧化反应产率从90.7%降为65.5%.羧化反应过程中溴离子对电制镁盐的配对能力受共催化剂阳离子静电引力的牵制而减弱,共催化剂的阳离子对溴离子的静电引力越强,溴离子对电制镁盐亲电性的影响就越弱.前期研究成果表明,在乙腈溶液中咪唑阳离子对阴离子的静电引力明显强于季铵阳离子,由此可认为当咪唑溴盐作为共催化剂时提高了电制镁盐的亲电性,促进了环氧化物的开环反应.提高羧化反应温度虽然可以降低环氧化物开环反应的活化能,但也会降低 CO2在乙腈溶液中的溶解度,50°C反应较为合适.在最优反应条件下考察了该催化体系对其他环氧化物羧化反应的普适性,所得环状碳酸酯产率为48.3%–90.7%.     

乙腈体系中咪唑溴盐和电制镁盐协同促进环氧化物与CO_2羧化反应合成环状碳酸酯（英文）

CO_2是一种储量丰富且廉价易得的可再生C1资源.以CO_2为原料的羧化反应可将CO_2高效转化成羧酸及其衍生物等高附加值化学品.例如,CO_2和环氧化物反应生成环状碳酸酯属于"原子经济"反应,是有效利用CO_2的方法之一,其产物环状碳酸酯广泛用于极性有机溶剂、电池电解液和化妆品等.由于CO_2化学性质非常稳定,不易活化,制备环状碳酸酯的传统方法是以金属卤化物或金属配合物为催化剂在高温高压下进行反应.因此,开发出操作简便且能耗低的绿色技术用于合成环状碳酸酯面临巨大挑战.最近研究表明,电催化技术可使环氧化物和CO_2在温和条件下转化为环状碳酸酯.已报道的电催化反应研究重点都是如何通过多相或均相电催化还原CO_2的方式使环氧化物能够在温和条件下进行羧化反应.然而,CO_2电还原生成的CO_2·-自由基非常活泼,在其扩散到溶液中与环氧化物反应之前易在电极上直接转化为CO和碳酸盐等副产物,从而导致羧化反应较低的电流效率.Ema课题组报道环氧化物与CO_2羧化反应经历三个步骤,即开环反应、CO_2插入反应和闭环反应,其中开环反应活化能最大,是羧化反应决速步骤.与已报道的电催化途径不同,本文通过建立一个由电化学反应和羧化反应组成的催化反应体系,旨在通过降低开环反应活化能来促进环氧化物羧化反应.在电化学反应过程中,由牺牲阳极提供羧化反应必需的路易斯酸,即电制镁盐;在羧化反应过程中,通过电制镁盐和咪唑溴盐的协同作用实现环氧化物和CO_2在温和条件下高效率地转化为环状碳酸酯.实验首先选取环氧苯乙烷为反应原料,考察了电制镁盐、共催化剂的阳离子以及羧化反应温度对目标产物产率的影响.如果羧化反应过程中没有镁盐或直接用等量溴化镁代替电制镁盐,羧化产率仅为5.4%和35.5%,而电制镁盐条件下羧化反应产率高达90.7%,表明电制镁盐作为路易斯酸催化剂对提高羧化反应产率是必不可少的.比较了在N2和CO_2气氛中分别电解制备得到的镁盐的催化性能.N2气氛中电制镁盐更高的催化性能可能与溶剂乙腈或支持电解质的阳离子在阴极发生电还原生成的物质有关.该电还原产物可部分代替溴离子与电制镁盐配对,由于其体积更大,一定程度上提高了电制镁盐的亲电性,有利于羧化反应进行.如果用四丁基溴化铵代替咪唑溴盐作为共催化剂,羧化反应产率从90.7%降为65.5%.羧化反应过程中溴离子对电制镁盐的配对能力受共催化剂阳离子静电引力的牵制而减弱,共催化剂的阳离子对溴离子的静电引力越强,溴离子对电制镁盐亲电性的影响就越弱.前期研究成果表明,在乙腈溶液中咪唑阳离子对阴离子的静电引力明显强于季铵阳离子,由此可认为当咪唑溴盐作为共催化剂时提高了电制镁盐的亲电性,促进了环氧化物的开环反应.提高羧化反应温度虽然可以降低环氧化物开环反应的活化能,但也会降低CO_2在乙腈溶液中的溶解度,50°C反应较为合适.在最优反应条件下考察了该催化体系对其他环氧化物羧化反应的普适性,所得环状碳酸酯产率为48.3%–90.7%.     

负载型离子液体在C-H键电氧化活化中的应用研究

本文将1-乙基-3-甲基咪唑醋酸盐离子液体修饰在多壁碳纳米管上,制备出离子液体/碳纳米管复合材料,并研究了对甲氧基甲苯（p-MT）在该复合离子液体水溶液体系中的电氧化性能. 同时,通过循环伏安法和计时电流法考查了扫描速率、温度、反应底物浓度等因素对电氧化性能的影响,研究了p-MT在该体系中的动力学过程. 实验结果表明,p-MT在复合离子液体水溶液体系中发生不可逆的电氧化反应,且该过程受扩散控制,扩散系数为7.69×10^-10 cm²·s^-1. 适当地升高温度和增大反应底物浓度都有利于促进p-MT中C-H键选择性电氧化为相应醛基,选择性可达到95%. 通过在不同结构电解槽中进行恒电位电解研究,发现离子液体/MWCNTs复合电解质在一室型电解槽中进行p-MT电氧化的电解效率更高、对目标产物对甲氧基苯甲醛（p-MBA）的选择性也更好.     

2-甲基吡啶的槽内式间接电氧化

在质子交换膜为隔膜的电解槽内, 以2-甲基吡啶为原料, 以Cr2O72-/Cr3+为媒质, 采用间接电氧化法研究了合成2-吡啶甲酸的反应条件. 实验结果表明, 硫酸浓度、硫酸铬浓度、 反应温度、2-甲基吡啶浓度和阳极电位对产率、转化率、 选择性和电流效率均有影响. 通过变化规律的研究, 找到了各个影响因素的最佳条件为: 硫酸浓度为6.0 mol/L, 反应温度为60 ℃, 硫酸铬浓度为0.15 mol/L, 2-甲基吡啶浓度为0.1 mol/L, 阳极电位为1.50 V.     

无负载的纳米银电极：一种用于1-溴乙基苯与 CO2电羧化的高效催化剂

CO2作为主要的温室气体, CO2固定利用引起了广泛的关注,同时它还是一种丰富无毒的 C1资源,将其作为原料合成高附加值的化学品,不仅可以缓解温室效应,而且还可以缓解能源危机,具有重要的经济和战略意义.在 CO2的资源化利用中,制备2-苯基丙酸意义重大.2-苯基丙酸是一种重要的医药中间体,可用于合成布洛芬、酮洛芬等用途广泛的药剂.因此,其制备方法引起了人们的广泛关注.
　　在典型的合成2-苯基丙酸均相催化体系中,经常使用Co, Ni和Pd等过渡金属催化剂,虽然得到的目标产物产率较高,但催化剂成本高,且很难循环使用,从而限制了其实际使用.
　　电催化法为2-苯基丙酸的合成提供了一条新的途径.本课题组利用手性钴配合物作为催化剂电羧化不对称合成了手性2-苯基丙酸,其产率和 ee值分别为37%和83%.此外,我们还制备了 Co负载的纳米 Ag电极,以其为工作电极不对称羧化1-溴乙基苯与 CO2反应,得到目标产物2-苯基丙酸的产率为58%, ee值为73%.
　　在前期工作的基础上,本文利用无负载的纳米银电极(Ag NPs)为工作电极,电催化1-溴乙基苯与 CO2羧化制备2-苯基丙酸.银纳米电极是利用水合肼还原 AgNO3溶液经抽滤、干燥、压片而成.为了研究 Ag NPs催化 CO2与1-溴乙基苯反应,在一室型电解池中,以 Ag NPs为阴极,镁电极为牺牲阳极,以 CH3CN-TEAI (0.1 mol/L)溶液为电解质溶液,底物浓度为0.1 mol/L,饱和 CO2的氛围下进行恒电流电解,经后处理,可得目标产物2-苯基丙酸.为了提高2-苯基丙酸的产率,我们探讨了工作电极、电解电量、电流密度以及反应温度等条件对反应的影响,从而得到优化条件为反应温度0℃、电解电量2.5 F/mol、电流密度5 mA/cm2,此时2-苯基丙酸的产率可达98%.
　　在优化条件下,我们还研究了一系列苯基卤代物,如溴化苄、溴苯、α-溴苯乙酸、2-溴代萘、二苯基溴甲烷和1-氯乙基苯的电羧化反应.反应后可以得到相应的羧酸,并取得较好的收率(67%?88%).结果表明,纳米银电极对催化该类反应具有很好催化活性和普适性.本文所采用的条件都比较温和,无需高温或高压.
　　在最优条件下,所制纳米银电极可重复使用至少10次,且保持催化活性不变.经过 X射线衍射和扫描电镜表征发现,重复使用后纳米银电极的组成和微结构都保持不变.因此,该纳米银电极具有制备方法简单、催化活性高,稳定性好等特点,具备一定的应用前景.     

Extraction of neodymium from other fission products by co‐reduction of Sn and Nd

High temperature processing is an important method for recovering long‐lived elements from spent nuclear fuel. Electrolysis is the key technology for high temperature processing. The electrochemical behaviors of Sn²⁺, Nd³⁺ and the mechanisms of Sn‐Nd alloy formation were investigated on a Mo electrode at 873 K by conducting a series of electrochemical techniques. The results showed the deposition of Nd on inert electrode is a two‐step process in LiCl‐KCl‐SnCl₂ (2.0 wt.%) melt system. Subsequently, the electrochemical extraction of Nd from molten chlorides were carried out on the Mo electrode at temperature of 873 K by the potentiostatic electrolysis at ?1.2 V for 40 hr. Besides, the extraction efficiency is 97.6%. A series of potentiostatic electrolysis were carried out at potential range between ?1.0 and ? 1.4 V. The NdSn₃ alloy was obtained by electrolysis at ?1.2 V. This deposition potential is consistent with the predicted results of the mathematical model. The micro‐chemical analysis and morphology analysis of the deposits was characterized by energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) equipped. The composition of the deposits was analyzed by X‐ray diffraction (XRD) and inductive coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometer (ICP‐AES).     

Electrocarboxylation of Acetophenone to 2‐Hydroxy‐2‐phenylpropionic Acid in the Presence of CO2

Electrocarboxylation of acetophenone with CO₂ to obtain 2‐hydroxy‐2‐phenylpropionic acid was carried out in acetonitrile solution containing 0.1 mol·L^?1 tetraethylammonium bromide. Influences of the nature of the electrodes, the working potential, the passed charge and the concentration of acetophenone on the electrocarboxylation were studied. After optimizing the synthetic parameters, the maximal isolated yield reached 73.0% on Mg‐stainless steel couple electrodes under potentiostatic electrolysis until 2.2 F·mol^?1 of charge was passed at 25 °C. The reduction of acetophenone was studied by cyclic voltammetry and the mechanism has been proposed on the basis of the results.     

Single‐Site Copper(II) Water Oxidation Electrocatalysis: Rate Enhancements with HPO42− as a Proton Acceptor at pH 8

The complex Cu^II(Py₃P) ( 1 ) is an electrocatalyst for water oxidation to dioxygen in H₂PO₄^?/HPO₄^2? buffered aqueous solutions. Controlled potential electrolysis experiments with 1 at pH 8.0 at an applied potential of 1.40 V versus the normal hydrogen electrode resulted in the formation of dioxygen (84 % Faradaic yield) through multiple catalyst turnovers with minimal catalyst deactivation. The results of an electrochemical kinetics study point to a single‐site mechanism for water oxidation catalysis with involvement of phosphate buffer anions either through atom–proton transfer in a rate‐limiting O? O bond‐forming step with HPO₄^2? as the acceptor base or by concerted electron–proton transfer with electron transfer to the electrode and proton transfer to the HPO₄^2? base.     

Effect of cationic composition of electrolytes based on the M2MoO4-M2Mo2O7-UO2MoO4 (M = Li, Na, K, Cs) system on the oxygen factor of the uranium electrolytic oxides

The effects of the electrolyte composition, deposition potential, temperature, and the salt-solvent cation on the oxygen factor (the [O]/[U] atomic ratio) of uranium oxides obtained by potentiostatic electrolysis of molybdate melts are studied. It is shown that the oxygen factor of the cathodic product increases with the melt temperature. The shift of the deposition potential toward more electronegative values, an increase in the Mo₂O^2? ₇ ion concentration, and a decrease in the UO₂MoO₄ concentration favor the cathodic formation of uranium oxides with lower oxygen factors. All other conditions being the same, the oxygen factor decreases with increasing the salt-solvent cation radius. The observed anomalous behavior of the Li₂MoO₄-based electrolytes can be caused by a lower activity in the melts of the O^2? anions that are capable of forming stable complexes Li₃O⁺ with lithium cations. The obtained results can be reasonably explained in terms of the model of ionic composition of the uranyl-containing tungstate melts, which is based on the concept of involvement of the uranyl ions in the complexes’ formation and stepwise solvolysis.     

Oxygen electrodes in fused salts: Investigation and mechanistic remarks on the system (Ni)CO2, O2/CO32− in molten (Na,K)NO3

A potentiometric investigation on the system (Ni)CO₂, O₂/CO₃^2? was carried out at 507–637 K in the (Na, K)NO₃ equimolar mixture containing carbonate ions in the range 10^?5≤[CO₃^2?]≤10^?2 mol kg^?1 and under a mixture of O₂ and CO₂ at variable partial pressure. The potential behaviour of the nickel electrodes was found largely dependent on the working temperature. At the highest tested temperature the system behaves irreversibly under potentiometric conditions and the potential was found to be independent of the oxygen concentration. At lower temperatures a large irreversibility of the system was still found, while a certain dependence (different from the theoretical one) of the potential on both oxygen and carbon dioxide partial pressure was experimentally demonstrated. The entire set of results was interpreted on the basis of the two following mechanistic models involving, in the potential determining step, solid species formed on the electrode surface by contact with the melt. Mechanism 1 (high temperature)

Mechanism 2 (low temperature)

     

Transfer of actinide ion at the interface between aqueous and nitrobenzene solutions studied by controlled-potential electrolysis at the interface

A novel electrochemical method based on controlled-potential electrolysis has been developed for the elucidation of the ion transfer at the interface between two immiscible electrolyte solutions (ITIES). A relationship between the applied interfacial potential (E_app) and the amount of the ion transferred (A_tr) was investigated after an electrolytic equilibrium was attained by controlled-potential electrolysis. The A_tr was determined chemically or radiometrically instead of by current measurement. It was found that (i) controlled-potential electrolysis was applicable to the study of the transfer of such hydrophilic ions as transition metal ions which gave no appreciable current within the potential window in voltammetry or polarography at ITIES, (ii) controlled-potential electrolysis in combination with a sensitive analytical method enabled a study of the transfer reaction of an ion of very dilute concentration, and (iii) even when the transfer reaction of an ion was irreversible or quasi-reversible, a standard ion transfer potential could be determined by controlled-potential electrolysis without using a kinetic parameter. The controlled-potential electrolysis method developed was applied to the transfer reactions of actinide ions such as UO₂ ²⁺ and Am³⁺ from aqueous solution to nitrobenzene solution in the absence or presence of an ionophore facilitating the transfer. The Gibbs energy for the transfer of actinide ion and a stability constant of the complex between an actinide ion and the ionophore in nitrobenzene solution were determined from log D versus E_app plots (D the ratio of the concentration of the ion in nitrobenzene solution to that in aqueous solution). The feasibility of controlled-potential electrolysis as a method for electrolytic separation of actinide ions is discussed.     

Electrodeposition of micro- and nanocrystalline lead selenide from alkaline selenosulfate solutions

Cathodic electrodeposition of PbSe is carried out in aqueous alkaline selenosulfate (SeSO ₃ ^2? ) bath of lead complex ions at various conditions of electrolysis. Micro- and nanocrystalline PbSe thin films were grown onto glassy carbon (GC) substrates by potentiostatic and cyclic voltammetric (CV) methods respectively. Structure and surface morphology of thin films were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). X-ray diffraction indicates that the PbSe films have cubic structure without any impurities. The SEM micrograph showed the films cover GC substrate completely and consisted of irregular shaped grains.     

Electrosynthesis of cinnamic acid by electrocatalytic carboxylation of phenylacetylene in the presence of [NiII(Me4-NO2Bzo[15]tetraeneN4)] complex: An EC′CCC′C mechanism

A Ni(II) complex, [Ni^II(Me₄-NO₂Bzo[15]tetraeneN₄)], was used for electrocatalytic reduction of CO₂ in acetonitrile solvent. Then, the reduced form of CO₂ (CO₂^?) was used for selective carboxylation of phenylacetylene to produce cinnamic acid at room temperature. The potential of the process is significantly less negative in comparison with those reported earlier. Using sacrificial magnesium electrode as anode, controlled potential coulometry was carried out in an undivided glass cell. The spectral characterizations of FTIR, ¹H NMR, and ¹³C NMR demonstrated that cinnamic acid was the main product of the electrolysis. With respect to other catalysts, which have been previously reported in the literature, application of the Ni(II) complex in carboxylation of unsaturated compounds has three advantages: (1) the selectivity in the production of cinnamic acid; (2) more increase in the reduction current indicating that the carboxylation of phenylacetylene is fast; and (3) the potential shift of electrocatalytic reduction of CO₂ to less negative values showing that the Ni(II) complex has an excellent electrocatalytic activity for CO₂ reduction. According to the voltammetric and coulometric results, an EC′CCC′C mechanism was proposed for the electrocatalytic synthesis of cinnamic acid.     

A Binuclear Iron–Thiolate Catalyst for Electrochemical Hydrogen Production in Aqueous Micellar Solution

The substituted iron–thiolate complex [Fe₂(μ‐bdt)(CO)₄{P(OMe)₃}₂] (bdt=benzenedithiolate) is an active catalyst for electrochemical hydrogen production in aqueous sodium dodecyl sulfate solution, with a high apparent rate constant of 4×10⁶ M ^?1 s^?1. The half‐peak potential for catalysis of proton reduction is less negative than ?0.6 V versus the standard hydrogen electrode at pH 3. Voltammetric data are consistent with the rate of electrode reaction controlled by diffusion. A mechanism that begins with the rapid protonation of the iron–thiolate catalyst is proposed. The Faradaic efficiency in diluted HCl solutions is close to 100 %, but the catalytic activity decayed after about twelve turnovers when electrolysis was carried out in the presence of acetic acid.     

Controlled polymerization of acrylic acid under 60Co irradiation in the presence of dibenzyl trithiocarbonate

The polymerization of acrylic acid (AA) was performed under ⁶⁰Co irradiation in the presence of dibenzyl trithiocarbonate at room temperature, and well‐defined poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) with a low polydispersity index was successfully prepared. The gel permeation chromatographic and ¹H NMR data showed that this polymerization displays living free‐radical polymerization characteristics: a narrow molecular weight distribution (M_w/M_n = 1.07–1.22), controlled molecular weight, and constant chain‐radical concentration during the polymerization. Using PAA? S? C(?S)? S? PAA as an initiator, the extension reaction of PAA with fresh AA was carried out under ⁶⁰Co irradiation, and the results indicated that this extension polymerization displayed controlled polymerization behavior. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 39: 3934–3939, 2001