Nonlinear dynamics and acoustic emissions of interacting cavitation bubbles in viscoelastic tissues

The cavitation-mediated bioeffects are primarily associated with the dynamic behaviors of bubbles in viscoelastic tissues, which involves complex interactions of cavitation bubbles with surrounding bubbles and tissues. The radial and translational motions, as well as the resultant acoustic emissions of two interacting cavitation bubbles in viscoelastic tissues were numerically investigated. Due to the bubble–bubble interactions, a remarkable suppression effect on the small bubble, whereas a slight enhancement effect on the large one were observed within the acoustic exposure parameters and the initial radii of the bubbles examined in this paper. Moreover, as the initial distance between bubbles increases, the strong suppression effect is reduced gradually and it could effectively enhance the nonlinear dynamics of bubbles, exactly as the bifurcation diagrams exhibit a similar mode of successive period doubling to chaos. Correspondingly, the resultant acoustic emissions present a progressive evolution of harmonics, subharmonics, ultraharmonics and broadband components in the frequency spectra. In addition, with the elasticity and/or viscosity of the surrounding medium increasing, both the nonlinear dynamics and translational motions of bubbles were reduced prominently. This study provides a comprehensive insight into the nonlinear behaviors and acoustic emissions of two interacting cavitation bubbles in viscoelastic media, it may contribute to optimizing and monitoring the cavitation-mediated biomedical applications.     

The characterization of acoustic cavitation bubbles - an overview

Acoustic cavitation, in simple terms, is the growth and collapse of preexisting microbubbles under the influence of an ultrasonic field in liquids. The cavitation bubbles can be characterized by the dynamics of oscillations and the maximum temperatures and pressures reached when they collapse. These aspects can be studied both experimentally and theoretically for a single bubble system. However, in a multibubble system, the formation of bubble streamers and clusters makes it difficult to characterize the cumulative properties of these bubbles. In this overview, some recently developed experimental procedures for the characterization of acoustic cavitation bubbles have been discussed.     

Nuclear emissions during self-nucleated acoustic cavitation

A unique, new stand-alone acoustic inertial confinement nuclear fusion test device was successfully tested. Experiments using four different liquid types were conducted in which bubbles were self-nucleated without the use of external neutrons. Four independent detection systems were used (i.e., a neutron track plastic detector to provide unambiguous visible records for fast neutrons, a detector, a NE-113-type liquid scintillation detector, and a NaI gamma ray detector). Statistically significant nuclear emissions were observed for deuterated benzene and acetone mixtures but not for heavy water. The measured neutron energy was 相似文献   

Observation of acoustic cavitation bubbles at 2250 frames per second.

Acoustically induced cavitation at 20 kHz is observed by means of high speed CCD recording at a frame-rate of 2250 per second. Using digital image processing the bubbles' trajectories are reconstructed. The experimental data reveal that collision and coalescence of bubbles is a predominant phenomenon that limits their individual lifetime. Measurements of bubble sizes and velocities are in agreement with previous results.     

Ultrasonic detection of resonant cavitation bubbles in a flow tube by their second-harmonic emissions

During low-power exposures, biophysical effects of ultrasonic cavitation are induced primarily by resonant bubbles, and there is a need for a new method of detecting these small bubbles. Bubble pulsation theory indicates that second-harmonic emissions emanate from resonant bubbles even at low amplitudes. A device was constructed to detect resonant bubbles passing through it in a flowing liquid by monitoring second-harmonic responses to a low amplitude, 1.64 MHz ultrasonic field. During testing, 4.2 μm diameter resonant bubbles produced signals 40 times larger than 500 μm diameter bubbles, and this technique was much better than a first-harmonic scattering technique for counting resonant bubbles.     

Thermodynamic and kinetic considerations of nucleation and stabilization of acoustic cavitation bubbles in water

Qualitative explanation for a homogeneous nucleation of acoustic cavitation bubbles in the incompressible liquid water with simple phenomenological approach has been provided via the concept of the desorbtion of the dissolved gas and the vaporization of local liquid molecules. The liquid medium has been viewed as an ensemble of lattice structures. Validity of the lattice structure approach against the Brownian motion of molecules in the liquid state has been discussed. Criterion based on probability for nucleus formation has been defined for the vaporization of local liquid molecules. Energy need for the enthalpy of vaporization has been considered as an energy criterion for the formation of a vaporous nucleus. Sound energy, thermal energy of the liquid bulk (Joule-Thomson effect) and free energy of activation, which is associated with water molecules in the liquid state (Brownian motion) as per the modified Eyring's kinetic theory of liquid are considered as possible sources for the enthalpy of vaporization of water molecules forming a single unit lattice. The classical nucleation theory has then been considered for expressing further growth of the vaporous nucleus against the surface energy barrier. Effect of liquid property (temperature), and effect of an acoustic parameter (frequency) on an acoustic cavitation threshold pressure have been discussed. Kinetics of nucleation has been considered.     

The dynamics of cavitation bubbles in a sealed vessel

A model of cavitation bubbles is derived in liquid confined in an elastic sealed vessel driven by ultrasound. In this model, an assumption that the pressure acting on the sealed vessel due to bubble pulsations is proportional to total volume change of bubbles is made. Numerical simulations are carried out for a single bubble and for bubbles. The results show that the pulsation of a single bubble can be suppressed to a large extent in sealed vessel, and that of two matched bubbles with same ambient radius can be further suppressed. However, when two mismatched bubbles have the same ambient radii, an interesting breathing phenomenon takes place, where one bubble pulsates inversely with the other one. Due to this breathing phenomenon the suppression effect becomes weak, so the maximum radii of two mismatched bubbles can be larger than that of a single bubble or that of two matched bubbles in sealed vessel. Besides that, for two mismatched bubbles with different ambient radii, the small one in sealed vessel under some certain parameters can pulsate as strong as or even stronger than that of a single bubble in an open vessel.     

Numerical simulations of acoustic cavitation noise with the temporal fluctuation in the number of bubbles

Numerical simulations of cavitation noise have been performed under the experimental conditions reported by Ashokkumar et al. (2007) [26]. The results of numerical simulations have indicated that the temporal fluctuation in the number of bubbles results in the broad-band noise. “Transient” cavitation bubbles, which disintegrate into daughter bubbles mostly in a few acoustic cycles, generate the broad-band noise as their short lifetimes cause the temporal fluctuation in the number of bubbles. Not only active bubbles in light emission (sonoluminescence) and chemical reactions but also inactive bubbles generate the broad-band noise. On the other hand, “stable” cavitation bubbles do not generate the broad-band noise. The weaker broad-band noise from a low-concentration surfactant solution compared to that from pure water observed experimentally by Ashokkumar et al. is caused by the fact that most bubbles are shape stable in a low-concentration surfactant solution due to the smaller ambient radii than those in pure water. For a relatively high number density of bubbles, the bubble–bubble interaction intensifies the broad-band noise. Harmonics in cavitation noise are generated by both “stable” and “transient” cavitation bubbles which pulsate nonlinearly with the period of ultrasound.     

An alternative technique for determining the number density of acoustic cavitation bubbles in sonochemical reactors

The present paper introduces a novel semi-empirical technique for the determination of active bubbles’ number in sonicated solutions. This method links the chemistry of a single bubble to that taking place over the whole sonochemical reactor (solution). The probe compound is CCl₄, where its eliminated amount within a single bubble (though pyrolysis) is determined via a cavitation model which takes into account the non-equilibrium condensation/evaporation of water vapor and heat exchange across the bubble wall, reactions heats and liquid compressibility and viscosity, all along the bubble oscillation under the temporal perturbation of the ultrasonic wave. The CCl₄ degradation data in aqueous solution (available in literature) are used to determine the number density through dividing the degradation yield of CCl₄ to that predicted by a single bubble model (at the same experimental condition of the aqueous data). The impact of ultrasonic frequency on the number density of bubbles is shown and compared with data from the literature, where a high level of consistency is found.     

Effect of static pressure on acoustic energy radiated by cavitation bubbles in viscous liquids under ultrasound

The effect of static pressure on acoustic emissions including shock-wave emissions from cavitation bubbles in viscous liquids under ultrasound has been studied by numerical simulations in order to investigate the effect of static pressure on dispersion of nano-particles in liquids by ultrasound. The results of the numerical simulations for bubbles of 5 μm in equilibrium radius at 20 kHz have indicated that the optimal static pressure which maximizes the energy of acoustic waves radiated by a bubble per acoustic cycle increases as the acoustic pressure amplitude increases or the viscosity of the solution decreases. It qualitatively agrees with the experimental results by Sauter et al. [Ultrason. Sonochem. 15, 517 (2008)]. In liquids with relatively high viscosity (～200 mPa s), a bubble collapses more violently than in pure water when the acoustic pressure amplitude is relatively large (～20 bar). In a mixture of bubbles of different equilibrium radius (3 and 5 μm), the acoustic energy radiated by a 5 μm bubble is much larger than that by a 3 μm bubble due to the interaction with bubbles of different equilibrium radius. The acoustic energy radiated by a 5 μm bubble is substantially increased by the interaction with 3 μm bubbles.     

Luminescence from acoustic-driven laser-induced cavitation bubbles

The influence of a continuous sound field on the first oscillation cycle and on the cavitation luminescence of a transient laser-induced bubble is investigated experimentally. The variation of the collapse phase is predicted with a simple numerical model and compared with experiment. Bubble dynamics is mainly influenced by three parameters: the phase of bubble generation, the size of the bubble, and the amplitude of the sound field. The experimentally found enhancement and reduction of the luminescence is discussed and several suggestions are made for further boosting of the collapse strength.     

Time-resolved measurements of shock-induced cavitation bubbles in liquids

A novel experimental method for the measurement of cavitation bubble dynamics is presented. The method makes use of a collimated cw HeNe laser beam that is focused onto a photodiode. A cavitation bubble centered in the laser beam leads to refraction and thus changes the diode signal. With sufficient temporal resolution of the measurement, the evolution of the bubble dynamics, and in particular, the collapse, could be well resolved (limitation is only due to diode response and oscilloscope bandwidth). In the present work this is demonstrated with cavitation bubbles generated with high-power nanosecond and femtosecond laser pulses, respectively. Bubble evolution is studied in two different liquids (water and glycerine) and at different temperatures and pressures.     

The acoustic signature of bubbles fragmenting in sheared flow

Measurements of the sound of bubbles fragmenting in fluid shear are presented and analyzed. The frequency, amplitude, and decay rate of the acoustic emissions from 1.8-mm-radius bubbles fragmenting between opposed fluid jets have been determined. A broad band of frequencies (1.8 to 30 kHz) is observed with peak pressure amplitudes in the range of 0.03 to 2 Pa. While the peak pressure amplitudes show no significant scaling with frequency, the frequency dependence of the decay rates is consistent with the sum of thermal and acoustic radiation losses.     

Spectral characteristics of acoustic cavitation

This paper reports on theoretical research into the dynamics, acoustic noise and noise spectrum of a single cavitation bubble affected by non-gradiental acoustic fields. It is shown that all the characteristic features of experimental acoustic cavitation spectra occur in the spectrum of a single bubble.     

Shock-wave model of acoustic cavitation

Shock-wave model of liquid cavitation due to an acoustic wave was developed, showing how the primary energy of an acoustic radiator is absorbed in the cavitation region owing to the formation of spherical shock-waves inside each gas bubble. The model is based on the concept of a hypothetical spatial wave moving through the cavitation region. It permits using the classical system of Rankine-Hugoniot equations to calculate the total energy absorbed in the cavitation region. Additionally, the model makes it possible to explain some newly discovered properties of acoustic cavitation that occur at extremely high oscillatory velocities of the radiators, at which the mode of bubble oscillation changes and the bubble behavior approaches that of an empty Rayleigh cavity. Experimental verification of the proposed model was conducted using an acoustic calorimeter with a set of barbell horns. The maximum amplitude of the oscillatory velocity of the horns' radiating surfaces was 17 m/s. Static pressure in the calorimeter was varied in the range from 1 to 5 bars. The experimental data and the results of the calculations according to the proposed model were in good agreement. Simple algebraic expressions that follow from the model can be used for engineering calculations of the energy parameters of the ultrasonic radiators used in sonochemical reactors.     

Thermal convection and emergence of isolated vortices in soap bubbles

A novel thermal convection cell consisting of half a soap bubble heated at the equator is introduced to study thermal convection and the movement of isolated vortices. The soap bubble, subject to stratification, develops thermal convection at its equator. A particular feature of this cell is the emergence of isolated vortices. These vortices resemble hurricanes or cyclones and similarities between our observed structures and these natural objects are found. This is brought forth through a study of the mean square displacement of these objects showing signs of superdiffusion.     

Quantification of optison bubble size and lifetime during sonication dominant role of secondary cavitation bubbles causing acoustic bioeffects

Acoustic cavitation has been shown to deliver molecules into viable cells, which is of interest for drug and gene delivery applications. To address mechanisms of these acoustic bioeffects, this work measured the lifetime of albumin-stabilized cavitation bubbles (Optison) and correlated it with desirable (intracellular uptake of molecules) and undesirable (loss of cell viability) bioeffects. Optison was exposed to 500 kHz ultrasound (acoustic pressures of 0.6-3.0 MPa and energy exposures of 0.2-200 J/cm2) either with or without the presence of DU145 prostate cancer cells (10(6) cells/ml) bathed in calcein, a cell-impermeant tracer molecule. Bubble lifetime was determined using a Coulter counter and flow cytometer, while bioeffects were evaluated by flow cytometry. The lifetime of Optison cavitation nuclei was found to decrease and bioeffects (molecular uptake and loss of cell viability) were found to increase with increasing acoustic energy exposure. These bioeffects correlated well with the disappearance of bubbles, suggesting that contrast agent destruction either directly or indirectly affected cells, probably involving unstabilized cavitation nuclei created upon the destruction of Optison. Because Optison solutions presonicated to destroy all detectable bubbles also caused significant bioeffects, the indirect mechanism involving secondary cavitation bubbles is more likely.     

固体壁面附近激光空泡的动力学特性研究

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Bubble population phenomena in acoustic cavitation

Theoretical treatments of the dynamics of a single bubble in a pressure field have been undertaken for many decades. Although there is still scope for progress, there now exists a solid theoretical basis for the dynamics of a single bubble. This has enabled useful classifications to be established, including the distinction between stable cavitation (where a bubble pulsates for many cycles) and transient cavitation (where the bubble grows extensively over time-scales of the order of the acoustic cycle, and then undergoes an energetic collapse and subsequent rebound and then, potentially, either fragmentation, decaying oscillation or a repeat performance). Departures from sphericity, such as shape and surface oscillations and jetting, have also been characterized. However, in most practical systems involving high-energy cavitation (such as those involving sonochemical, biological and erosive effects), the bubbles do not behave as the isolated entities modelled by this single-bubble theory: the cavitational effect may be dominated by the characteristics of the entire bubble population, which may influence, and be influenced by, the sound field.

The well established concepts that have resulted from the single-bubble theory must be reinterpreted in teh light of the bubble population, an appreciation of population mechanisms being necessary to apply our understanding of single-bubble theory to many practical applications of ‘power’ ultrasound. Even at a most basic level these single-bubble theories describe the response of the bubble to the local sound field at the position of the bubble, and that pressure field will be influenced by the way sound is scattered by neighbouring bubbles. The influence of the bubble population will often go further, a non-uniform sound field creating an inhomogeneous bubble distribution. Such a distribution can scatter, channel and focus ultrasonic beams, can acoustically shield regions of the sample, and elsewhere localize the cavitational activity to discrete ‘hot spots’. As a result, portions of the sample may undergo intense sonochemical activity, degassing, erosion, etc., whilst other areas remain relatively unaffected. Techniques exist to control such situations where they are desirable, and to eliminate this localization where a more uniform treatment of the sample is desired.