Development of plasma pyrolysis/gasification systems for energy efficient and environmentally sound waste disposal

As more efficient and reliable torches for thermal plasma generation have become available in recent years, the use of thermal plasma as an energy source for pyrolysis/gasification has attracted much interest, and special attention has been paid to waste treatment for resource and energy recovery. Plasma pyrolysis/gasification systems have unique features such as the extremely high reaction temperature and ultra-fast reaction velocity compared to traditional pyrolysis/gasification systems. Plasma pyrolysis/gasification is therefore acknowledged as a novel pyrolysis/gasification technology with great potential in solid waste disposal. This paper gives a comprehensive review on the development of fundamental researches on plasma pyrolysis/gasification systems including direct current (DC) arc plasma system and radio frequency (RF) plasma system with an emphasis on reactor design such as plasma fixed/moving bed reactor system, plasma entrained-flow bed reactor system and plasma spout-fluid bed reactor system.     

Arc plasma devices: Evolving mechanical design from numerical simulation

Wide ranges of technological applications involve arc plasma devices as the primary plasma source for processing work. Recent findings exhibit the existence of appreciable thermal non-equilibrium in these so-called thermal plasma devices. Commercially available magnetohydrodynamic codes are not capable of handling such systems due to unavailability of non-equilibrium thermodynamic and transport property data and self-consistent models. A recipe for obtaining mechanical design of arc plasma devices from numerical simulation incorporating two-temperature thermal non-equilibrium model is presented in this article with reference to the plasma of the mixture of molecular gases like nitrogen and oxygen. Such systems are technologically important as they correspond to the plasma devices operating with air, oxygen plasma torches in cutting industries and plasma devices using nitrogen as shielding gas. Temperature field, associated fluid dynamics and electrical characteristics of a plasma torch are computed in a systematic manner to evaluate the performance of a conceived design using a two-fluid CFD model coupled with a two-temperature thermodynamic and transport property code. Important effects of different nozzle designs and plasma gases obtained from the formalism are discussed. Non-equilibrium thermodynamic properties are computed using modified two-temperature Saha equations and transport properties are computed using standard Chapman–Enskog approach.     

Effect of current connection to the anode nozzle on plasma torchefficiency

Experiments have been performed to demonstrate the influence of the location of the electric power connection to the anode nozzle on the efficiency of DC plasma torches. The DC plasma torch used in these experiments offers the flexibility to work with different anode geometries and the possibility of connecting the electrical power to the anode at two different locations. For each set of experiments, the controllable parameters such as total gas flow rate, gas composition, and electric current were kept constant, changing only the location of the electrical connection to the anode nozzle. The efficiency of the torch, derived from a conventional energy balance, shows a significant change as the location of the electrical connection to the anode nozzle is changed. The measured mean voltage as well as the amplitude of the voltage fluctuations were also affected by the location of the electrical connection to the anode nozzle. An explanation for the arc behavior is given, based on an analysis of the forces acting on the anode arc column and their influeuce on the variation of the arc column length. Experimental data are in good agreement with analytical predictions     

Numerical simulation for the characterization of operating conditions of RF-RF hybrid plasma torches

A two-dimensional (r,z) numerical code has been developed to investigate the prominent features of RF-RF hybrid plasma torches with two stages of different diameter. Flow and temperature fields have been calculated within the assumptions of laminar flow and local thermodynamic equilibrium for the optically thin argon plasma operated at atmospheric pressure, taking into full account the electromagnetic interaction between the primary and the secondary stage of the hybrid device. Results from a detailed parametric study for various geometric, gas flow and electric configurations aim at putting into evidence the wide range of operating conditions that can characterize the use of RF-RF hybrid plasma torches for industrial applications, showing also their possibility to give high enthalpy plasma jets with high torch efficiencies. The magnetofluidynamic modelling described in this work can be an effective tool for providing the theoretical framework for a deep understanding of RF-RF hybrid plasma torches and for designing them as suitable sources for chemical processing of materials, when utilized within an integrated approach that would match the induction plasma torch simulation with the RF generator operating conditions to evaluate the total source efficiency for each particular hybrid configuration.Received: 23 December 2003, Published online: 10 February 2004PACS: 52.75.Hn Plasma torches - 52.65.-y Plasma simulation - 52.80.Pi High-frequency - RF dischargesA colour version of the figures is available in electronic form at http: //ww.edpsciences.org     

Simulation study of a capacitively coupled plasma torch array

Using capacitively coupled electrical discharges, an array of three plasma torches powered by a single 60-Hz source are lit up simultaneously to produce a dense plasma in the open air. The discharge voltage and current of each torch is measured for three cases of one to three torches being lit up in the array. The results determine the ν-i characteristic of the discharge which indicates that the torch is operating in a diffuse are mode. The torch array is modeled by an equivalent circuit for simulating its operation. The simulation results of the discharge voltage and current of a torch are shown to agree well with those from the experimental measurements for the three cases. The lump circuit model is then used to carry out numerical simulations of the discharge for a broad parameter space of plasma species. By fitting the simulation results, a function giving the parametric dependence of the consumed average power density 〈P〉 on the normalized average electron density 〈n_e〉 maintained in the plasma is determined to be 〈P〉 48 〈n_e〉 ^1.9α_^0.4(W/cm³), where 〈n_e〉 is normalized to 10¹³cm^-3 and α_, the electron-ion recombination coefficient normalized to 10^-7 cm³·s^-1, is used as a variable parameter in the simulation     

Numerical simulation on the influence of water spray in thermal plasma treatment of CF4 gas

Nitrogen thermal plasma generated by a non-transferred DC arc plasma torch was used to decompose tetrafluoromethane (CF₄). In the thermal decomposition process, water was used as a chemical reactant source. Two kinds of water spray methods were compared: water spray directly to the arc plasma flame and indirectly to the reactor tube wall. Although the same operating conditions of input power, waste gas, and sprayed water flow rate were employed for each water spray methods, a relatively higher decomposition rate was achieved in the case of water spray to the reactor wall. In order to investigate the effects of water spraying direction on the thermal decomposition process, a numerical simulation on the thermal plasma flow characteristics was carried out considering water injection in the reactor. The simulation was performed using commercial fluid dynamics software of the FLUENT, which is suitable for calculating a complex flow. From the results, it was revealed that water spray to the reactor wall and use of a relatively small quantity of water are more effective methods for decomposition of CF₄, because a sufficiently high temperature area and long reaction time can be maintained over large area.     

等离子体光学加工关键技术研究现状

等离子体加工技术是近年来发展起来的先进光学制造技术,具有快速缓解或去除传统光学加工方法导致的表面/亚表面损伤,以及高效、高精度和高分辨率修整光学面形的优势。从等离子体光学加工基本原理出发,基于等离子体激发频率与特征对发生器进行了简要叙述;进一步对各研究机构在等离子体加工技术涉及的射流特性、界面物化反应、损伤去除机理、去除函数、加工热效应和工艺定位等关键技术研究内容及成果进行分析,并对等离子体的新型光学加工技术进行介绍。随着研究的不断深入,构建多物理场和化学反应综合作用下的等离子体加工模型,揭示表面等离子体特性分布与去除函数的内在联系,从而建立准确的去除函数模型,是提高修形精度的发展方向,研究热效应控制方法和补偿策略在降低由热效应带来的修形误差方面起到了重要作用。     

The atmospheric-pressure plasma jet: a review and comparison toother plasma sources

Atmospheric-pressure plasmas are used in a variety of materials processes. Traditional sources include transferred arcs, plasma torches, corona discharges, and dielectric barrier discharges. In arcs and torches, the electron and neutral temperatures exceed 3000°C and the densities of charge species range from 10¹⁶-10¹⁹ cm^-3. Due to the high gas temperature, these plasmas are used primarily in metallurgy. Corona and dielectric barrier discharges produce nonequilibrium plasmas with gas temperatures between 50-400°C and densities of charged species typical of weakly ionized gases. However, since these discharges are nonuniform, their use in materials processing is limited. Recently, an atmospheric-pressure plasma jet has been developed, which exhibits many characteristics of a conventional, low-pressure glow discharge. In the jet, the gas temperature ranges from 25-200°C, charged-particle densities are 10 ¹¹-10¹² cm^-3, and reactive species are present in high concentrations, i.e., 10-100 ppm. Since this source may be scaled to treat large areas, it could be used in applications which have been restricted to vacuum. In this paper, the physics and chemistry of the plasma jet and other atmospheric-pressure sources are reviewed     

Processes and properties of electric arc stabilized by water vortex

Experimental investigation of an electric arc stabilized by a water vortex was carried out in a DC arc plasma torch for the power range 90-200 kW. Volt-ampere characteristics of the arc as well as the power balance were determined separately for the part of the arc column stabilized by water and for the remaining part between the nozzle exit and the external anode. The temperature of arc plasma close to the nozzle exit was determined by emission spectroscopy. Negatively biased electric probes in the ion collecting regime were used for determination of the plasma flow velocity. The measured temperatures up to 27000 K, and velocities up to 7 km/s are higher than the values commonly reported for plasma torches with DC arcs stabilized by a gas flow. Mass and energy balances within the arc chamber were determined from the experimental results. The radial transport of the energy by radiation was identified as a decisive process controlling the arc and plasma properties. The balance of radial energy transport was studied. The ratio of energy spent for evaporation of the water to the energy absorbed in the evaporated mass is very low in the water stabilized arc. This is the principal cause of high plasma temperatures and velocities found by the measurements     

Research on the influence of conductivity to pulsed arc electrohydraulic discharge in water

Pulsed arc electrohydraulic discharge (PAED) is a kind of thermal plasma arc discharge phenomenon which can generate strong pressure wave, ultraviolet ray and active groups. Therefore, PAED can act as a significant role applying on the technology of water treatment and it has broad application prospects. Compared with the existing water treatment mechanism, the technology of PAED possesses the most sterilization efficient and no secondary pollution. There are a huge number of plasma, active groups and gas liquid mixtures generated between the two arc electrodes in the water medium when the streamer discharge voltage is 3∼5 kV. In addition, water conductivity is also changed with the development of pulse arc electrohydraulic discharge which should be the prime importance in the process of PAED. In this article, firstly we analyzed the discharge mechanism on the process of pulsed arc electrohydraulic discharge. After that how the conductivity had played a major role in the process of pre-breakdown discharge and the main discharge processes will be discussed in detail. Experiments were conducted to research the relation among the conductivity, the pressure wave, active groups, ultraviolet light, discharge current and voltage generated from PAED. In finally the result can become a basis for using the water treatment tech of pulsed arc electrohydraulic discharge on different conductivity.     

Nonlinear dynamics of radio frequency plasma processing reactorspowered by multifrequency sources

The source frequency has a strong influence on plasma characteristics in RF discharges. Multiple sources at widely different frequencies are often simultaneously used to separately optimize the magnitude and energy of ion fluxes to the substrate. In doing so, the sources are relatively independent of each other. These sources can, however, nonlinearly interact if the frequencies are sufficiently close. The resulting plasma and electrical characteristics can then be significantly different from those due to the sum of the individual sources. In this paper, a plasma equipment model is used to investigate the interaction of multiple frequency sources in capacitively and inductively coupled RF excited plasmas. In capacitively coupled systems, we confirmed that the plasma density increases with increasing frequency but also found that the magnitude of the DC bias and DC sheath voltage decreases. To produce a capacitively coupled discharge having a high plasma density with a large DC bias, we combined low and high frequency sources. The plasma density did increase using the dual frequency system as compared to the single low frequency source. The sources, however, nonlinearly interacted at the grounded wall sheath, thereby shifting both the plasma potential and DC bias. In inductively coupled plasmas (ICP), the frequency of the capacitive substrate bias does not have a significant effect on electron temperature and density. The DC bias and DC sheath voltage at the substrate were, however, found to strongly depend on source frequency. By using additional RF sources at alternate locations in ICP reactors, it was found that the DC bias at the substrate was varied without significantly changing other plasma parameters, such as the substrate sheath potential     

Arc root dynamics in high power plasma torches — Evidence of chaotic behavior

Although plasma torches have been commercially available for about 50 years, areas such as plasma gun design, process efficiency, reproducibility, plasma stability, torch lives etc. have remained mostly unattended. Recent torch developments have been focusing on the basic understanding of the plasma column and its dynamics inside the plasma torch, the interaction of plasma jet and the powders, the interaction of the plasma jet with surroundings and the impingement of the jet on the substrate. Two of the major causes of erratic and poor performance of a variety of thermal plasma processes are currently identified as the fluctuations arising out of the arc root movement on the electrodes inside the plasma torch and the fluid dynamic instabilities arising out of entrainment of the air into the plasma jet. This paper reviews the current state of understanding of these fluctuations as well as the dynamics of arc root movement in plasma torches. The work done at the author’s laboratory on studying the fluctuations in arc voltage, arc current, acoustic emissions and optical emissions are also presented. These fluctuations are observed to be chaotic and interrelated. Real time monitoring and controlling the arc instabilities through chaos characterization parameters can greatly contribute to the understanding of electrode erosion as well as improvement of plasma torch lifetime.     

Thermal plasmas

Although many thermal plasma processes have been developed for industrial applications, the wide acceptance as a manufacturing technology is prevented due to economical and competitive reasons, and/or reproducibility and reliability aspects. This paper is devoted to an assessment of the present knowledge in the following topics: (1) plasma torch and performance of blown arc (dc or ac), transferred arc and radio frequency torches; (2) established industrial applications with special emphasis on cutting, welding, spraying, transferred arc reclamation, reheating and purification, reheating metal melts, smelting reduction, chemical operations, and waste destruction; (3) recent developments in the knowledge of fundamental processes in plasma torches with power sources, cathodes (hot and cold), anodes (static and dynamic behavior), and torch components; (4) modeling-thermodynamic and transport properties, plasma flow with and without the Maxwell's equations; (5) measurement techniques including emission and absorption spectroscopy, laser scattering, enthalpy probes, video cameras, spectral analysis, shadowgraphy, and particle diagnostics either in flight with statistical measurements and those giving characteristics of a single particle upon flattening on a substrate; and (6) plasma-processing development in the presently used industrial processes and also in prospective processes with surface hardening, ultrafine powder production, plasma-assisted CVD, and plasma-fluidized or spouted bed reactors     

红外吸收光谱法研究等离子体甲烷裂解规律

基于光谱吸收原理提出了利用3 391 nm He-Ne激光光源的甲烷探测方法,分析了交、直流辉光放电等离子体中甲烷裂解转化的过程和规律.探测对象选取甲烷3 390 nm附近的ν3谱带,采用单波长、双通道差分吸收探测,消除了光源不稳定及光电器件漂移等因素造成的误差影响.理论和实验表明,该方法有效地提高了系统探测的灵敏度及稳定性.     

基于平面螺旋电感的微型ICP激发源

随着微电子机械系统(MEMS)技术的发展,基于MEMS的光谱仪分光系统和光电检测系统研究报道日益增多,但是微型激发源的研究报道相对较少。文章介绍了一种基于表面微机械加工技术的微型电感耦合等离子体(ICP)激发源,其RF功耗在数瓦以下、氩气消耗量远低于常规ICP激发源。阐述了这种激发源的结构、加工工艺流程及性能指标。同时还介绍了作者设计制作的基于PCB工艺的微型ICP激发源,采用了平面螺旋电感线圈和平面梳状交指电容,在100 Pa氩气气压下用13.56 MHz,3.5 W射频功率激励点燃了等离子体火炬,给出了装置的外观微型ICP火炬的照片。最后展望了该微型的ICP激发源在光谱仪中的应用前景。     

Microwave Plasmas at Atmospheric Pressure

Microwave plasmas at atmospheric pressure are used for surface treatments like for example cleaning, sterilization or decontamination purposes, for a pre‐treatment to increase the adhesion of lacquer, paint, or glue, and for the deposition of different kind of layers and coatings. Micro plasma jets can also be applied for biomedical applications and for treatment of small and complex geometries like for example the inside of capillaries. Larger plasma torches which exhibit higher gas temperatures can also be used for chemical syntheses like waste gas decomposition, methane pyrolysis, or carbon dioxide dissociation and for plasma spraying purposes. In the present publication an overview on the development and the investigation of the operating principle of two atmospheric pressure microwave plasma torches at frequencies of 2.45 GHz and 915 MHz will be presented. The plasma sources are based on a cylindrical resonator combined with coaxial structures. To explain how these plasma sources work, simulations of the electric field distribution will be discussed. Furthermore, some physical characteristics of an air and an Ar/H2 atmospheric plasma like gas temperatures, excitation temperatures and densities as well as the heating of the plasma by the microwave will be investigated. (© 2014 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Synthesis of well-aligned carbon nanotubes by inductively coupled plasma chemical vapor deposition

Uniform and well-aligned carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been grown using a high density inductively coupled plasma chemical vapor deposition (ICP-CVD) system. A gas mixture of methane-hydrogen was used as the source and Ni as the catalyst for the CNT growth. The effect of process parameters, such as inductive RF power, DC bias voltage and CH₄/H₂ ratio, on the growth characteristics of CNTs was investigated. It was found that both plasma intensity and ion flux to the substrate, as controlled by the inductive RF power and DC bias voltage, respectively, can greatly affect the growth of CNTs. The relative importance of the generation of ions and the subsequent transport of ions to the substrate as serial process steps are considered as the two underlying factors in determining the growth characteristics of CNTs. PACS 81.05.Uw; 81.07.De; 81.15.Gh     

电感耦合氩等离子体中的碰撞截面和输运系数

本文计算了电感耦合氩等离子体中各碰撞截面及电导、热导、扩散和粘滞系数。指出热导在能量传递中起着重要作用,双极扩散则会造成冷等离子体区拥有比局部热平衡值大得多的电子密度。更重要的是,计算表明:三体复合和超弹性碰撞会导致冷等离子体区出现大量的高能电子,这种电子速度分布对Maxwell分布的偏离对作为发射光谱光源的等离子体的激发性质有着特殊的重要意义。 关键词：     

Critical issues in plasma-assisted vapor deposition processes

The currently used plasma-assisted vapor deposition processes are reviewed. They are analyzed in terms of the three steps in deposition processes, i.e. generation of the depositing species, transport from source to substrate, and film growth on the substrate. The role of the plasma in each of the steps for the various processes is discussed. All processes involve two sets of parameters: the plasma parameters and the process parameters. These parameters couple to a greater or lesser degree in each of the basic processes, which reflects their versatility. The roles of plasma volume chemistry and plasma diagnostics are discussed. It is clear that a deeper basic understanding of plasma-assisted deposition processes necessitates a much greater volume of work on plasma diagnostics coupled with theoretical estimates. The influence of ion bombardment on the structure, composition, and properties of the films is considered. Hybrid processes which attempt to circumvent the somewhat deleterious intercoupling of the plasma and process parameters are briefly discussed     

Different spray processes for different Al2O3 coating properties

Among the different coating technologies, a thermal spray has a leading position because of its versatility: an extremely wide variety of materials can be deposited to protect back materials from wear, corrosion, thermal flux, etc. For example, atmospheric plasma spray is a rather well-established process but some other ones, such as flame technology, can also be used with lower economical impact. After a respective optimization of the processing parameters, both plasma and wire flame thermal processes were tested to form Al₂O₃ coatings. For each process, in-flight particle conditions, coating cross-section micro-structures and coating properties were successively determined. The experimental parameters were correlated to in-flight particle characteristics and to coating micro-structure and compared to resulting coating features. The evolution of particle velocity and temperature showed well-marked trends and the mean values were dependent on the spray process. The results emphasized the difference of spray system in terms of kinetic and thermal transfers to the particles. Then, the differences observed on in-flight particle characteristics can be used to explain the differences observed in coating properties, such as porosity content and hardness.