The effect of top contact on ZnO write‐once–read‐many‐times memory

Write‐once–read‐many‐times memory (WORM) devices were fabricated using Ti/Au and Au as top contacts on ZnO thin films on Si. Electrical characterization shows that both types of WORM devices have large resistance OFF/ON ratio (R ratio), small resistance distribution range, long retention and good endurance. WORM devices with Au top contact have better performance of higher R ratio because of a larger work function of Au compared to Ti.

     

Bias‐driven super‐insulating state in prismane single‐molecule contacts

Quantum transport in a single‐molecule contact made of a prismane cluster C₈ attached to quasi‐one‐dimensional gold (100) electrodes is calculated using the ab initio methodology based on the density‐functional theory and the nonequilibrium Green's functions formalism. Varying the junction length L we calculate the length dependence of the zero‐bias conductance G (L) and, for a set of the interelectrode distances, the current–voltage (I –V) characteristics. It is shown that the G (L) dependence is strongly nonmonotonic with a sharp dip at some value of L. With increase in L, the I –V curves change their shape from monotonic curves to curves with a negative differential resistance area and, for a larger L, the junction exhibits the super‐insulating state, i.e., within some applied bias voltage range the current through the junctions is about two orders of magnitude less than the current outside this bias range. (© 2011 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Modeling the formation of local highly aluminum‐doped silicon regions by rapid thermal annealing of screen‐printed aluminum

The formation of local highly aluminum‐doped (Al‐p⁺) regions by rapid thermal annealing (firing) of screen‐printed aluminum strongly depends on the temperature profile and the contact geometry. We measure the local Al‐p⁺ layer thickness W_Al‐p+ as a function of the point and line contact size. Using quantitative yet simple analytical modeling, the time‐dependent silicon concentration in the Al melt is described by elementary differential equations. From this we calculate W_Al‐p+ and find agreement with the measurements. In contrast to the formation of full area Al‐p⁺ layers we find a smaller silicon concentration at the end of the firing process compared to the equilibrium concentration. This is a result of the process dynamics such as the dissolution rate of solid silicon and the transport of silicon in the Al melt. (© 2012 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Low‐temperature atomic layer deposition of MoOx for silicon heterojunction solar cells

The preparation of high‐quality molybdenum oxide (MoO_x) is demonstrated by plasma‐enhanced atomic layer deposition (ALD) at substrate temperatures down to 50 °C. The films are amorphous, slightly substoichiometric with respect to MoO₃, and free of other elements apart from hydrogen (&11 at%). The films have a high transparency in the visible region and their compatibility with a‐Si:H passivation schemes is demonstrated. It is discussed that these aspects, in conjunction with the low processing temperature and the ability to deposit very thin conformal films, make this ALD process promising for the future application of MoO_x in hole‐selective contacts for silicon heterojunction solar cells. (© 2015 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH &Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Efficient interdigitated back‐contacted silicon heterojunction solar cells

We present back‐contacted amorphous/crystalline silicon heterojunction solar cells (IBC‐SHJ) on n‐type substrates with fill factors exceeding 78% and high current densities, the latter enabled by a SiN_x /SiO₂ passivated phosphorus‐diffused front surface field. V_oc calculations based on carrier lifetime data of reference samples indicate that for the IBC architecture and the given amorphous silicon layer qualities an emitter buffer layer is crucial to reach a high V_oc, as known for both‐side contacted silicon heterojunction solar cells. A back surface field buffer layer has a minor influence. We observe a boost in solar cell V_oc of 40 mV and a simultaneous fill factor reduction introducing the buffer layer. The aperture‐area efficiency increases from 19.8 ± 0.4% to 20.2 ± 0.4%. Both, efficiencies and fill factors constitute a significant improvement over previously reported values. (© 2011 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Ion implantation into amorphous Si layers to form carrier‐selective contacts for Si solar cells

This paper reports our findings on the boron and phosphorus doping of very thin amorphous silicon layers by low energy ion implantation. These doped layers are implemented into a so‐called tunnel oxide passivated contact structure for Si solar cells. They act as carrier‐selective contacts and, thereby, lead to a significant reduction of the cell's recombination current. In this paper we address the influence of ion energy and ion dose in conjunction with the obligatory high‐temperature anneal needed for the realization of the passivation quality of the carrier‐selective contacts. The good results on the phosphorus‐doped (implied V_oc = 725 mV) and boron‐doped passivated contacts (iV_oc = 694 mV) open a promising route to a simplified interdigitated back contact (IBC) solar cell featuring passivated contacts. (© 2014 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH &Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

CZTS‐based materials and interfaces and their effects on the performance of thin film solar cells

Cu₂ZnSnS₄ (CZTS) and its related materials such as Cu₂ZnSnSe₄ (CZTSe) and Cu₂ZnSn(S,Se)₄ (CZTSSe) have attracted considerable attention as an absorber material for thin film solar cells due to the non‐toxicity, elemental abundance, and large production capacity of their constituents. Despite the similarities between CZTS‐based materials and Cu(In,Ga)Se₂(CIGS), the record efficiency of CZTS‐based solar cells remains significantly lower than that of CIGS solar cells. Considering that the difference between the two lies in the choice of the absorber material, the cause of the lower efficiency of CZTS‐based solar cells can be isolated to the issues associated with CZTS‐based materials and their related interfaces. Herein, these issues and the work done to understand and resolve them is reviewed. Unlike existing review papers, every unique region of CZTS‐based solar cells that contributes to its lower efficiency, namely: (1) the bulk of the absorber, (2) the grain boundaries of the absorber, (3) the absorber/buffer layer interface, and (4) the absorber/back contact interface are surveyed. This review also intends to identify the major unresolved issues and the potential improvement approaches of realizing sizable improvements in the solar cells' efficiency, thus providing a guide as to where research efforts should be focused. (© 2014 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH &Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

The interface structure and band alignment at alumina/Cu(Al) alloy interfaces—Influence of the crystallinity of alumina films

Both epitaxial and amorphous ultra-thin alumina films were grown on a Cu-9 at.%Al(1 1 1) substrate by selective oxidation of Al in the alloy in ultra high vacuum. The crystallinity of the alumina films was controlled by oxidation temperature. The photoelectron spectra of Al 2p, O 1s and valence band were measured in-situ during oxidation. The influence of the crystallinity on the interface structure between the alumina films and the substrate was discussed by analyzing the Al 2p spectra composed of multiple peaks. The energy difference between the Fermi level of the substrate and the valence band maximum of the alumina films (band offset) was derived from the valence band spectra. The energy band alignment at the interface between each of the two alumina films and the substrate was revealed by combining the binding energy values of the core levels with the band offset values. The influence of the alumina crystallinity on the band alignment was discussed.     

Local heating in noble metal nanocontacts under high biases at 77 K

Effects of local heating of noble metal nanocontacts under high biases at 77 K are investigated by measuring the bias dependence of the two-level fluctuation (TLF) frequency of the contact conductance. The TLF frequency increases exponentially in a bias range from 0.2 to 0.6 V for Au and Cu nanocontacts. This result indicates that the effective contact temperature of these contacts remains unchanged up to 0.6 V, in accordance with the theoretical prediction by Todorov et al. [T.N. Todorov, J. Hoekstra, A.P. Sutton, Phys. Rev. Lett. 86 (2001) 3606]. In contrast, the TLF frequency of Ag nanocontacts starts to increase more rapidly above 0.45 V than that of Au and Cu nanocontacts. The steep rise in the TLF frequency is possibly attributed to a poor heat transfer to the bulk part of the contact and a resulting rapid increase in the effective temperature.     

Effect of cryogenic temperature deposition on Au contacts to bulk, single-crystal n-type ZnO

Au contacts were deposited on bulk, n-type single-crystal ZnO at either 77 K or 300 K.The room temperature deposition produced contacts with ohmic characteristics. By sharp contrast, the cryogenic deposition produced rectifying characteristics with barrier heights around 0.4 eV. The differences in contact behavior were stable to anneal temperatures of ∼300 °C. There were no differences in near-surface stoichiometry for the different deposition temperatures, while the low temperature contacts showed a more uniform appearance. With further optimization of the pre-deposition cleaning process, this may be a useful method for engineering barrier heights on ZnO.     

Ir-based diffusion barriers for Ohmic contacts to p-GaN

Ir-based electrical contacts to p-type GaN have been fabricated and characterized. Both GaN//Ni/Au/Ir/Au and GaN//Ni/Ir/Au contact structures were deposited, however, only the former produced Ohmic current-voltage characteristics. At an anneal temperature of 500 °C, the Ni/Au/Ir/Au contact had a specific contact resistance of ∼2 × 10⁻⁴ Ω cm², comparable or superior to conventional Ni/Au contacts that are less thermally stable. Anneal temperatures above 500 °C caused the Ir-based contact to fail. Auger electron spectroscopy was used to obtain depth profiles of both types of contacts at a variety of temperatures in order to provide insight into the mechanism of Ohmic formation as well as potential reasons for failure. A comparison to other metallization schemes on p-GaN is also given.     

ZrB2-based Ohmic contacts to p-GaN

The annealing temperature dependence of contact resistance and layer stability of ZrB₂/Ti/Au and Ni/Au/ZrB₂/Ti/Au Ohmic contacts on p-GaN is reported. The as-deposited contacts are rectifying and transition to Ohmic behavior for annealing at ≥750 °C, a significant improvement in thermal stability compared to the conventional Ni/Au Ohmic contact on p-GaN, which is stable only to <600 °C. A minimum specific contact resistance of ∼2 × 10⁻³ Ω cm⁻² was obtained for the ZrB₂/Ti/Au after annealing at 800 °C while for Ni/Au/ZrB₂/Ti/Au the minimum value was 10⁻⁴ Ω cm⁻² at 900 °C. Auger Electron Spectroscopy profiling showed significant Ti, Ni and Zr out diffusion at 750 °C in the Ni/Au/ZrB₂/Ti/Au while the Ti and Zr intermix at 900 °C in the ZrB₂/Ti/Au. These boride-based contacts show promise for contacts to p-GaN in high temperature applications.     

Thermal stability of Ti/Al/Pt/Au and Ti/Au Ohmic contacts on n-type ZnCdO

The specific contact resistivity and chemical intermixing of Ti/Au and Ti/Al/Pt/Au Ohmic contacts on n-type Zn_0.05Cd_0.95O layers grown on ZnO buffer layers on GaN/sapphire templates is reported as a function of annealing temperature in the range 200-600 °C. A minimum contact resistivity of 2.3 × 10⁻⁴ Ω cm² was obtained at 500 °C for Ti/Al/Pt/Au and 1.6 × 10⁻⁴ Ω cm² was obtained at 450 °C for Ti/Al. These values also correspond to the minima in transfer resistance for the contacts. The Ti/Al/Pt/Au contacts show far smoother morphologies after annealing even at 600 °C, whereas the Ti/Au contacts show a reacted appearance after 350 °C anneals. In the former case, Pt and Al outdiffusion is significant at 450 °C, whereas in the latter case the onset of Ti and Zn outdiffusion is evident at the same temperature. The improvement in contact resistance with annealing is suggested to occur through formation of TiO_x phases that induce oxygen vacancies in the ZnCdO.     

免掺杂、非对称异质接触晶体硅太阳电池的研究进展

免掺杂、非对称异质接触的新型太阳电池由于近几年的飞速发展,理论转化效率已达到28%,具有较大的发展空间,引起了人们的重视.由于传统晶硅太阳电池产业存在生产设备成本高、原材料易燃易爆等诸多限制,市场对太阳电池产业低成本、绿色无污染的期待越来越高,极大地增加了免掺杂、非对称异质接触的新型太阳电池研究和开发的必要性.为了进一步加快免掺杂、非对称异质接触晶体硅太阳电池的研究进度,本文对其发展现状进行了综述,着重讨论了过渡金属氧化物(TMO)载流子选择性运输的基本原理、制备技术以及空穴传输层、电子传输层和钝化层对基于TMO构建的免掺杂、非对称异质接触(DASH)太阳电池性能的影响,以期对电池的工作机理、材料选择有更深刻的认识,为新型高效的DASH太阳电池制备提供指导.     

RF-sputtered CrB2 diffusion barrier for Ni/Au Ohmic contacts on p-CuCrO2

Ohmic contacts to p-type CuCrO₂ using Ni/Au/CrB₂/Ti/Au contact metallurgy are reported. The samples were annealed in the 200–700 °C range for 60 s in flowing oxygen ambient. A minimum specific contact resistance of 2 × 10⁻⁵ Ω cm² was obtained after annealing at 400 °C. Further increase in the annealing temperature (>400 °C) resulted in the degradation of contact resistance. Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) depth profiling showed that out-diffusion of Ti to the surface of the contact stacks was evident by 400 °C, followed by Cr at higher temperature. The CrB₂ diffusion barrier decreases the specific contact resistance by almost two orders of magnitude relative to Ni/Au alone.     

Single-oscillator model and determination of optical constants of spray pyrolyzed amorphous SnO<Subscript>2</Subscript> thin films

It has recently been shown that growth of a multilayer structure with one or more delta-layers at high temperature leads to spreading and asymmetrization of the dopant distribution [see, for example, E.F.J. Schubert, Vac. Sci. Technol. A. 8, 2980 (1990), A.M. Nazmul, S. Sugahara, M. Tanaka, J. Crystal Growth 251, 303 (2003); R.C. Newman, M.J. Ashwin, M.R. Fahy, L. Hart, S.N. Holmes, C. Roberts, X. Zhang, Phys. Rev. B 54, 8769 (1996); E.F. Schubert, J.M. Kuo, R.F. Kopf, H.S. Luftman, L.C. Hopkins, N.J. Sauer, J. Appl. Phys. 67, 1969 (1990); P.M. Zagwijn, J.F. van der Veen, E. Vlieg, A.H. Reader, D.J. Gravesteijn, J. Appl. Phys. 78, 4933 (1995); W.S. Hobson, S.J. Pearton, E.F. Schubert, G. Cabaniss, Appl. Phys. Lett. 55, 1546 (1989); Delta Doping of Semiconductors, edited by E.F. Schubert (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996); Yu.N. Drozdov, N.B. Baidus', B.N. Zvonkov, M.N. Drozdov, O.I. Khrykin, V.I. Shashkin, Semiconductors 37, 194 (2003); E. Skuras, A.R. Long, B. Vogele, M.C. Holland, C.R. Stanley, E.A. Johnson, M. van der Burgt, H. Yaguchi, J. Singleton, Phys. Rev. B 59, 10712 (1999); G. Li, C. Jagadish, Solid-State Electronics 41, 1207 (1997)]. In this work analytical and numerical analysis of dopant dynamics in a delta-doped area of a multilayer structure has been accomplished using Fick's second law. Some reasons for asymmetrization of a delta-dopant distribution are illustrated. The spreading of a delta-layer has been estimated using example materials of a multilayer structure, a delta-layer and an overlayer.     

Next‐to‐next‐to‐leading order post‐Newtonian linear‐in‐spin binary Hamiltonians

The next‐to‐next‐to‐leading order post‐Newtonian spin‐orbit and spin(1)‐spin(2) Hamiltonians for binary compact objects in general relativity are derived. The Arnowitt‐Deser‐Misner canonical formalism and its generalization to spinning compact objects in general relativity are presented and a fully reduced matter‐only Hamiltonian is obtained. Several simplifications using integrations by parts are discussed. Approximate solutions to the constraints and evolution equations of motion are provided. Technical details of the integration procedures are given including an analysis of the short‐range behavior of the integrands around the sources. The Hamiltonian of a test‐spin moving in a stationary Kerr spacetime is obtained by rather simple approach and used to check parts of the mentioned results. Kinematical consistency checks by using the global (post‐Newtonian approximate) Poincaré algebra are applied. Along the way a self‐contained overview for the computation of the 3PN ADM point‐mass Hamiltonian is provided, too.