Experiments and low-order modelling of intermittent transitions between clockwise and anticlockwise spinning thermoacoustic modes in annular combustors

Annular combustion chambers of gas turbines and aircraft engines are subject to unstable azimuthal thermoacoustic modes leading to high amplitude acoustic waves propagating in the azimuthal direction. For certain operating conditions, the propagating direction of the wave switches randomly. The strong turbulent noise prevailing in gas turbine combustors is a source of random excitation for the thermoacoustic modes and can be the cause of these switching events. A low-order model is proposed to describe qualitatively this property of the dynamics of thermoacoustic azimuthal modes. This model is based on the acoustic wave equation with a destabilizing thermoacoustic source term to account for the flame’s response and a stochastic term to account for the turbulent combustion noise. Slow-flow averaging is applied to describe the modal dynamics on times scales that are slower than the acoustic pulsation. Under certain conditions, the model reduces formally to a Fokker-Planck equation describing a stochastic diffusion process in a potential landscape with two symmetric wells: One well corresponds to a mode propagating in the clockwise direction, the other well corresponds to a mode propagating in the anticlockwise direction. When the level of turbulent noise is sufficient, the stochastic force makes the mode jump from one well to the other at random times, reproducing the phenomenon of direction switching. Experiments were conducted on a laboratory scale annular combustor featuring 12 hydrogen-methan flames. System identification techniques were used to fit the model on the experimental data, allowing to extract the potential shape and the intensity of the stochastic excitation. The statistical predictions obtained from the Fokker–Planck equation on the mode’s behaviour and the direction switching time are in good agreement with the experiments.     

Instability and mode transition analysis of a hydrogen-rich combustion in a model afterburner

Combustion instabilities were investigated experimentally for a hydrogen-rich combustion in a model afterburner installed at the end of a high-enthalpy wind tunnel. Air was supplied at 0.3 MPa and 950 K. The combustion instabilities were studied with the time-resolved measurements of a near-infrared (NIR) emission from water molecules over 780 nm using a high-speed video camera. Pressure was also measured in the combustor. The pressure and the NIR images were analyzed by data-driven approach, which include the fast Fourier transform (FFT), the wavelet transform, the dynamic mode decomposition (DMD) and the Gaussian process latent variable methods (GP-LVM). Thermoacoustic instability was observed under a rich condition, and the amplitude of the pressure oscillation was the maximum at the overall equivalence ratio of approximately 2.4 or 2.7 as a result of the FFT. The combustion dynamics were investigated in detail for an experimental run at the equivalence ratio of 2.4. A pressure spectrogram indicated a flame–vortex interaction with a Strouhal number of 0.5 (2300 Hz), thermoacoustic instability (560 Hz), and their transitions with the wavelet transform. For NIR images, the same tendency was also observed in the spectrogram of the modes obtained by the Gabor-filtered DMD, which could clearly resolve the high-order harmonic modes of the flame–vortex interaction and the thermoacoustic instability. Furthermore, NIR images were analyzed with GP-LVM to study the evolution of the combustion dynamics in a three-dimensional latent space. Recurrence plots with the Euclidean distance function were used to visualize the evolutions of the combustion dynamics. A limit cycle behavior of the flame–vortex interaction was clearly observed, whereas the limit cycle of the thermoacoustic instability showed more complicated behaviors. The transition behaviors of the instabilities were observed in the recurrence plots in detail, indicating that the flame–vortex interaction excited the fourth harmonic mode of the thermoacoustic instability, followed by the basic mode.     

Characteristics of self-excited spinning azimuthal modes in an annular combustor with turbulent premixed bluff-body flames

In this paper we investigate self-excited azimuthal modes in an annular combustor with turbulent premixed bluff-body stabilised flames. Previous studies have shown that both swirl and equivalence ratio influence modal dynamics, i.e. the time-varying nature of the modes. However, self-excited azimuthal modes have not yet been investigated in turbulent flames without bulk swirl, which do not generate any preferential flow in either azimuthal direction, and may therefore lead to different behaviour. Joint probability density functions of the instability amplitudes at various flowrates and equivalence ratios showed a strong bi-modal response favouring both ACW and CW spinning states not previously observed. Operating conditions leading to a bi-modal response provide a unique opportunity to investigate whether the structure of the global fluctuating heat release rate of self-excited spinning modes in both directions exhibit similar dynamics and structure. This was investigated using high-speed OH* chemiluminescence images of the annular combustor and a new rotational averaging method was applied which decomposes the spinning components of the global fluctuating heat release rate. The new rotational averaging, which differs from standard phase-averaging, produces spatial averages in a frame of reference moving with the spinning wave. The results show that the structure of the fluctuating heat release rate for spinning modes is highly asymmetric as characterised by large, crescent shaped regions of high OH* intensity, located on the far side of each flame, relative to the direction of the azimuthally propagating pressure wave. In comparison with interacting swirling flames, these results indicate that the previously observed radial asymmetry of OH* fluctuations may be introduced through advection by local swirl.     

环形流道的热声学特性分析

从线性热声理论出发,推导了环形流道的横向分布函数表达式。在此基础上比较了等截面积环形流道与圆管的阻抗特性;针对一定工况,计算比较了两者沿管长的压力体积流率分布情况。该表达式对于设计小型同轴型热声系统以及简化热声系统的CFD模拟具有重要意义。     

甲烷/氧气层流同轴射流扩散火焰OH*自由基的数值研究

OH*自由基是火焰中主要的激发态自由基之一,它所产生的化学发光可用于描述火焰的结构、拉伸率、氧燃当量比和热释放速率等特征信息,因此被广泛应用于火焰燃烧状态的在线诊断。以甲烷/氧气层流同轴射流扩散火焰作为研究对象,采用GRI-Mech 3.0机理结合OH*自由基生成和淬灭反应进行数值计算,对OH*自由基的二维分布特性进行研究,分析不同区域内OH*自由基的生成路径,并探讨不同氧燃当量比例和不同喷嘴出口尺寸对OH*自由基强度和分布特性的影响。模拟结果与实验研究基本吻合,表明计算模型能够准确描述火焰中OH*自由基的二维分布。结果表明：在甲烷/氧气层流同轴射流扩散火焰中,OH*自由基存在两种不同形态的分布区域,分别由反应CH+O₂=OH*+CO和H+O+M=OH*+M生成;随着氧燃当量比提高,OH*自由基的分布区域逐渐向火焰下游扩张,根据其分布形态的变化可以对火焰燃烧状况进行判断;如果OH*自由基仅分布于火焰的上游区域且呈断开形态,则说明火焰处于贫氧燃烧状态。如果OH*分布呈环状形态,则说明火焰处于富氧燃烧状态;相同氧气流量条件下,缩小喷嘴出口的环隙尺寸有助于加强燃料和氧气的化学反应程度,从而使火焰中OH*自由基的摩尔分数显著提高,增强OH*化学发光的辐射强度,提高火焰光谱诊断的准确性。     

Numerical simulation and investigation of working process features in high-duty combustion chambers

Basic concepts of a numerical simulation method of two-phase turbulent flows with combustion are stated. Results of computations in gas generators and combustion chambers of liquid-propellant rocket engines operating on oxygen and methane are presented. Features of the processes of evaporation, mixture, flow, and combustion of the propellant within chambers with tree types of injectors, i.e., coaxial-jet gas-liquid, liquid-liquid monopropellant and bipropellant impinging-jets, are studied.     

Cellular and sporadic flame regimes of low-Lewis-number stretched premixed flames

3D structure and dynamical behavior of low-Lewis-number stretched premixed flames are numerically simulated within the framework of a thermo-diffusive model with one-step chemical reaction. The results are compared with microgravity experiments at qualitative level. The influence of Lewis number, equivalence ratio, and heat loss intensity on flame structure is investigated. It is experimentally and numerically found that lean counterflow flames can appear as a set of separate ball-like flames in a state of chaotic motion. It is shown that the time averaged flame balls coordinate may be considered as important characteristic similar to coordinate of continuous flame front. Numerical simulations reveal essential incompleteness of combustion at high level of heat losses. This incompleteness occurs in the process of lean mixtures combustion and is caused by fuel leakage through the gaps among ball-like flames.     

A model for vibration transmission of light-heavy structures

The vibration transmission of light-heavy structures is investigated in this paper. The light-heavy structure consists of a thin beam and a mass block. Based on numerical simulations with the finite element method and experiments, the block's effect on the thin beam is defined. A theoretical model for this beam-block structure is successfully developed, which is validated and agrees very well with the numerical and experimental models. Two kinds of transfer functions of velocities between any two points on the beam-block structure are studied experimentally and theoretically. The theoretical transfer functions agree well with the experimental results. There are peaks and valleys in the transfer functions, where the peaks occur at the anti-resonant frequencies of the second point and the valleys at the anti-resonant frequencies of the first point. Away from these peaks and valleys the magnitude of the transfer functions are about 0 dB for two points on the beam, and about 20 dB in our experiments for a point on the beam and another point on the block (close to the theoretical prediction of 18 dB determined by the mass ratio of the beam and the block). With these transfer functions, new techniques might be developed for indirect measurement of the vibration of the thin beam by measuring the vibration of the block.     

Simulation and modelling of the waves transmission and generation in a stator blade row in a combustion-noise framework

The combustion noise in aero-engines is known to have two different origins. First, the direct combustion noise is directly generated by the flame itself. Second, the indirect combustion noise is caused by the acceleration in the turbine stages of entropy spots generated by the combustion. In both cases, the turbo-machinery is involved in the combustion-noise transmission and generation. Numerical simulations are performed in the present study to assess the global noise for a real aeronautical configuration. On the one hand, the acoustic and entropy transfer functions of an isolated blade row are obtained using two-dimensional unsteady simulations. The transfer functions of the blade row are compared with the model of Cumpsty and Marble that assumes an axially compact configuration. On the other hand, the acoustic and entropy sources coming from a combustion chamber are calculated from a three-dimensional Large Eddy Simulation (LES). This allows an evaluation of the error introduced by the model for the present combustion chamber using the previous numerical simulations. A significant error is found for the indirect combustion noise, whereas it stays reasonable for the direct one.     

Nonlinear hydrodynamic and thermoacoustic oscillations of a bluff-body stabilised turbulent premixed flame

Turbulent premixed flames often experience thermoacoustic instabilities when the combustion heat release rate is in phase with acoustic pressure fluctuations. Linear methods often assume a priori that oscillations are periodic and occur at a dominant frequency with a fixed amplitude. Such assumptions are not made when using nonlinear analysis. When an oscillation is fully saturated, nonlinear analysis can serve as a useful avenue to reveal flame behaviour far more elaborate than period-one limit cycles, including quasi-periodicity and chaos in hydrodynamically or thermoacoustically self-excited system. In this paper, the behaviour of a bluff-body stabilised turbulent premixed propane/air flame in a model jet-engine afterburner configuration is investigated using computational fluid dynamics. For the frequencies of interest in this investigation, an unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes approach is found to be appropriate. Combustion is represented using a modified laminar flamelet approach with an algebraic closure for the flame surface density. The results are validated by comparison with existing experimental data and with large eddy simulation, and the observed self-excited oscillations in pressure and heat release are studied using methods derived from dynamical systems theory. A systematic analysis is carried out by increasing the equivalence ratio of the reactant stream supplied to the premixed flame. A strong variation in the global flame structure is observed. The flame exhibits a self-excited hydrodynamic oscillation at low equivalence ratios, becomes steady as the equivalence ratio is increased to intermediate values, and again exhibits a self-excited thermoacoustic oscillation at higher equivalence ratios. Rich nonlinear behaviour is observed and the investigation demonstrates that turbulent premixed flames can exhibit complex dynamical behaviour including quasiperiodicity, limit cycles and period-two limit cycles due to the interactions of various physical mechanisms. This has implications in selecting the operating conditions for such flames and for devising proper control strategies for the avoidance of thermoacoustic instability.     

A kinetics and dynamics study on the auto-ignition of dimethyl ether at low temperatures and low pressures

Though the combustion chemistry of dimethyl ether (DME) has been widely investigated over the past decades, there remains a dearth of ignition data that examines the low-temperature, low-pressure chemistry of DME. In this study, DME/‘air’ mixtures at various equivalence ratios from lean (0.5) to extremely rich (5.0) were ignited behind reflected shock waves at a fixed pressure (3.0 atm) over the temperature range 625–1200 K. The ignition behavior is different from that at high-pressures, with a repeatable ignition delay time fall-off feature observed experimentally in the temperature transition zone from the negative temperature coefficient (NTC) regime to the high-temperature regime. This could not be reproduced using available kinetic mechanisms as conventionally homogeneous ignition simulations. The fall-off behavior shows strong equivalence ratio dependence and disappears completely at an equivalence ratio of 5.0. A local ignition kernel postulate was implemented numerically to quantifiably examine the inhomogeneous premature ignition. At low temperature, no pre-ignition occurs in the mixture. A conspicuous discrepancy was observed between the measurements and constrained UV simulations at temperatures beyond the NTC regime. A third O₂ addition reaction sub-set was incorporated into AramcoMech 3.0, together with related species thermochemistry calculated using the G3/G4/CBS-APNO compound method, to explore the low-temperature deviation. The new reaction class does not influence the model predictions in IDTs, but the updated thermochemistry does. Sensitivity analyses indicate that the decomposition of hydroperoxy-methylformate plays a critical role in improving the low-temperature oxidation mechanism of DME but unfortunately, the thermal rate coefficient has never been previously investigated. Further experimental and theoretical endeavors are required to attain holistic quantitative chemical kinetics based on our understanding of the low-temperature chemistry of DME.     

Swirling spray flames dynamical blow out induced by transverse acoustic oscillations

Recent experiments on a laboratory scale annular system comprising multiple injectors (namely, MICCA-Spray), indicate that combustion instabilities coupled with azimuthal modes may induce large amplitude oscillations, which under certain conditions, lead to blow out of some of the flames established in the system, a phenomenon designated as dynamical blow out (DBO). An attempt is made in the present investigation to reproduce this phenomenon in a linear array of injectors (namely, TACC-Spray), where the acoustic field is externally applied to flames established by injector units that are identical to those used in the annular combustor. The acoustic field is generated by driver units placed on the lateral sides of a rectangular cavity. The pressure level induced in TACC-Spray can reach a peak value of 1700 Pa in a frequency range extending from 680 to 780 Hz, which corresponds to the typical frequency of azimuthal instabilities observed in the annular system. A theoretical model based on dimensional analysis serves to guide the choice of operating conditions that may lead to the DBO phenomenon. Experiments carried out in TACC-Spray and MICCA-Spray are then used to determine the DBO boundary, define the conditions that need to be fulfilled to observe this phenomenon, and gather high-speed visualizations providing some insights on the mechanisms that induce blow out.     

Nonlinear simulations of combustion instabilities with a quasi-1D Navier-Stokes code

As lean premixed combustion systems are more susceptible to combustion instabilities than non-premixed systems, there is an increasing demand for improved numerical design tools that can predict the occurrence of combustion instabilities with high accuracy. The inherent nonlinearities in combustion instabilities can be of crucial importance, and we here propose an approach in which the one-dimensional (1D) Navier-Stokes and scalar transport equations are solved for geometries of variable cross-section. The focus is on attached flames, and for this purpose a new phenomenological model for the unsteady heat release from a flame front is introduced. In the attached flame method (AFM) the heat release occurs over the full length of the flame. The nonlinear code with the use of the AFM approach is validated against analytical results and against an experimental study of thermoacoustic instabilities in oxy-fuel flames by Ditaranto and Hals [Combustion and Flame 146 (2006) 493-512]. The numerical simulations are in accordance with the experimental measurements and the analytical results and both the frequencies and the amplitudes of the resonant acoustic pressure modes are reproduced with good accuracy.     

Leading point behavior during the ignition of an annular combustor with liquid n-heptane injectors

Experimental and numerical investigations of ignition in combustors with multiple burners have recently emerged and have provided new insights on the last phase of ignition in gas turbine-like annular geometries where the flame propagates from burner to burner. Previous comparisons between calculations and experiments of light-round in a laboratory scale annular combustion chamber have demonstrated the ability of large-eddy simulation to predict such processes for perfectly premixed conditions and, more recently, for n-heptane spray injection. The present analysis focuses on two additional operating points with liquid n-heptane sprays and the turbulent flame propagation in the two-phase mixture is examined through the behavior of its leading points. The validation of the light-round process is characterized in terms of ignition delays. The detailed analysis of the propagation through the definition of a leading point enables to highlight some key phenomena responsible for the flame behavior, such as the influence of the liquid droplet spray and its vaporization in the chamber. Calculations indicate that the volumetric expansion due to the chemical reaction at the flame induces a strong azimuthal flow in the fresh stream at a distance of several sectors ahead of the flame, which modifies conditions in this region. This creates heterogeneities in the gas composition and wakes on the downstream side of the swirling jets formed by the injectors, with notable effects on the motion of the leading point and on the absolute flame velocity.     

Axis switching in turbulent buoyant diffusion flames

Dynamics of buoyant diffusion flames from rectangular, square, and round fuel sources were investigated using direct numerical simulation (DNS). Fully three-dimensional simulations were performed employing high-order numerical methods and boundary conditions to solve governing equations for variable-density flow and finite-rate Arrhenius chemistry. Significant differences among the different cases were revealed in the vortex dynamics, entrainment rate, small-scale mixing, and consequently flame structures. Mixing and entrainment enhancement in non-circular flames in comparison with circular ones was explained using the Biot–Savart instability theory, which relates vortex dynamics to the local azimuthal curvature. An extension of the theory elucidated why rectangular flames entrain more efficiently and spread wider than square ones, although both configurations have corners. It also provided an explanation for the aspect ratio effects in the near field. In the far field, nonlinear effects were dominant and the general transport equations for vorticity were analyzed in detail. The corner effects and aspect ratio effects were shown to be augmented by the intricate interactions among vortex dynamics, combustion, and buoyancy through the various terms in the equations. The presence of corners in non-circular flames led to concentrated regions of fine-scale mixing and intense reactions centered around the corners. Moreover, the rectangular flames exhibited a different dynamic behavior from even the square one, by creating discrepancies in entrainment, mixing, and combustion between the minor and major axis directions. Increasing the aspect ratio exacerbated such directional discrepancies, and ultimately led to axis switching. It was the first time that axis switching was observed by DNS in a rectangular flame of aspect ratio 3, which raised further questions in combustion prediction and control. Finally, a unified explanation for corner and aspect ratio effects was given on the basis of the Biot–Savart instability theory and the vorticity transport equations.     

Numerical investigation of low-frequency instability and frequency shifting in a scramjet combustor

The combustion instability in a laboratory-scale direct-connect hydrogen-fueled scramjet combustor is investigated numerically. The numerical simulation has been carried out using a delayed detached eddy simulation (DDES) with a detailed reaction mechanism. The computational framework has high fidelity by applying multi-dimensional high order accurate schemes for handling convective and viscous fluxes. The field data were accumulated up to 100 milliseconds on each case to capture sufficiently the repetitive behavior of low-frequency instability of order of 100 Hz. The numerical results exhibit the formation/dissipation of pressure and shock wave induced by continuous heat release in the combustor. This motion of pressure/shock wave, so-called upstream-traveling shock wave, presents repeated dynamics between isolator and combustor with a period of several milliseconds. With this periodic hydrodynamic characteristic, the upstream-traveling shock wave interacts with the boundary layer and injected fuel stream affecting fuel/air mixing and burning, and finally inducing the combustion instability in a scramjet combustor. Frequency analysis derived major instability frequencies of 190 Hz and 450 Hz in the isolator and combustor for low and high equivalence ratios, respectively. Current numerical results present the underlying flow physics on the shifting of the instability frequency by changing the equivalence ratio observed by the previous experimental studies. The fact that an instability frequency exists homogeneously from isolator to combustor informs that the combustion instability of scramjet engine is the fully coupled flow/combustion dynamics throughout the engine on a macroscopic scale.     

甲烷-空气预混火焰中OH∗,CH∗发光的定量测量及模拟

基于燃烧化学自发光的诊断技术对发动机诊断、监控有重要意义.针对碳氢燃料燃烧中OH*,CH*激发态物质的生成机理,及其与释热率、当量比的关系进行了实验与模拟探究.首先,利用提出的辐射标定手段对当量比0.7~1.33范围内甲烷-空气预混火焰进行了化学发光量化测量,通过波长分辨的光学收集系统,同时获得各发光组分的浓度,具有很强的便利性.然后采用一维燃烧反应模拟,对与实验工况相同条件下的发光辐射进行定量计算,并对比了释热分布与激发态物质（OH*,CH*,C₂*,CO₂*）的相互关系,计算结果表明,在甲烷-空气层流火焰中,OH*,CH*最合适标识释热率,C₂*次之,CO₂*与释热率分布几乎无相关性.通过实验与计算的对比结果,分析了现有OH*,CH*的各反应通道和常数的准确度,并评估了两自发光组分的主要生成反应路径.      

Three-dimensional dissipative optical solitons

A brief overview of recent theoretical results in the area of three-dimensional dissipative optical solitons is given. A systematic analysis demonstrates the existence and stability of both fundamental (spinless) and spinning three-dimensional dissipative solitons in both normal and anomalous group-velocity regimes. Direct numerical simulations of the evolution of stationary solitons of the three-dimensional cubic-quintic Ginzburg-Landau equation show full agreement with the predictions based on computation of the instability eigenvalues from the linearized equations for small perturbations. It is shown that the diffusivity in the transverse plane is necessary for the stability of vortex solitons against azimuthal perturbations, while fundamental (zero-vorticity) solitons may be stable in the absence of diffusivity. It has also been found that, at values of the nonlinear gain above the upper border of the soliton existence domain, the three-dimensional dissipative solitons either develop intrinsic pulsations or start to expand in the temporal (longitudinal) direction keeping their structure in the transverse spatial plane. Presented at 9-th International Workshop on Nonlinear Optics Applications, NOA 2007, May 17–20, 2007, Świnoujście, Poland     

热声转换的声表面波电压传感机制

提出了一种基于热声转换的高灵敏声表面波(SAW)电压传感机制并开展实验验证。从传热角度以及微扰理论出发建立了基于热声转换机制的SAW电压传感理论模型,探索了结构参数以及环境因素对SAW电压传感器灵敏度的影响规律。为了验证理论模型,在Y切石英基底上同芯片集成设计MEMS微型加热器与200 MHz声表面波器件以制备SAW电压传感器件,并搭建电压测试平台对传感器件开展性能测试。实验结果表明所制备的SAW传感器件电压与频率响应之间具有二次线性关系且在室温(20℃)下具有与理论相近的电压灵敏度(22.4 kHz/V),此外实验获得的环境温度对电压灵敏度的影响规律与理论相符。基于热声转换机制的SAW电压传感器能够显著的提高电压检测灵敏度。     

Theoretical and experimental investigation of onset characteristics of standing-wave thermoacoustic engines based on thermodynamic analysis

A simplified physical model for calculating the onset temperature ratio and the frequency of a standing wave thermoacoustic engine (SWTE) in the time domain is built based on thermodynamic analysis. Coefficients of transient pressure drop and heat transfer are first deduced from linear thermoacoustic theory. By numerical computation, the evolutions of the pressure amplitude and the spectrum characteristics during the onset process are presented. Furthermore, the effects of stack spacing, charge pressure, and resonator length on the onset temperature ratio and the frequency are calculated. Relatively good agreement between the computational and the experimental results has been achieved, which validates the model for calculating the onset characteristics.