Suppressing shape instabilities to discover the Bjerknes force instability (L)

For sufficiently strong acoustic forcing in a standing wave field, subresonant size bubbles are predicted to be repelled from the pressure antinode. Single bubble sonoluminescence (SBSL) conditions in water do not allow the observation of this instability. This study investigates the possibility that increasing the viscosity of the host liquid can preferentially suppress shape instabilities of a bubble and allow SBSL experiments to be limited by the Bjerknes force instability.     

氦离子低温预辐照对不锈钢中氦泡生长抑制作用的Monte Carlo模拟研究

实验中已发现氦离子低温预辐照不锈钢材料能有效抑制高温辐照阶段的氦泡生长,但这一结果一直缺少理论解释.基于持续注入粒子的三维格子气模型,采用Monte Carlo模拟方法研究了不同温度模式对氦泡生长行为的影响.研究发现,计算结果能很好地再现氦离子低温预注入抑制高温氦泡生长的实验现象,其原理为低温预注入时材料中形成了较高数密度的小氦泡,由于氦泡数量较多从而限制了氦泡平均尺寸的增大.     

球状泡群内气泡的耦合振动

振动气泡形成辐射场影响其他气泡的运动, 故多气泡体系中气泡处于耦合振动状态. 本文在气泡群振动模型的基础上, 考虑气泡间耦合振动的影响, 得到了均匀球状泡群内振动气泡的动力学方程, 以此为基础分析了气泡的非线性声响应特征. 气泡间的耦合振动增加了系统对每个气泡的约束, 降低了气泡的自然共振频率, 增强了气泡的非线性声响应. 随着气泡数密度的增加, 振动气泡受到的抑制增强; 增加液体静压力同样可抑制泡群内气泡的振动, 且存在静压力敏感区(1–2 atm, 1 atm=1.01325×10⁵ Pa); 驱动声波对气泡振动影响很大, 随着声波频率的增加, 能够形成空化影响的气泡尺度范围变窄. 在同样的声条件、泡群尺寸以及气泡内外环境下, 初始半径小于5 μm 的气泡具有较强的声响应. 气泡耦合振动会削弱单个气泡的空化影响, 但可延长多气泡系统空化泡崩溃发生的时间间隔和增大作用范围, 整体空化效应增强.     

Measurements of frequency spectra of transmission coefficients to ultrasound through trapped microbubbles

Techniques which use hydrophobic polycarbonate thin sheets containing randomly spaced, fairly uniform small pores immersed in water to trap air bubbles have been found to be useful in biophysical experiments. The utilization of broadband polyvinylidene fluoride transducers in this work made it possible to measure a continuous frequency spectrum of the transmission coefficient of the trapped bubbles. The results of the measurements show: (1) the frequency response curve of the bubble ensemble is much broader than that of a single bubble predicted by theory; and (2) as the incident sound pressure at a micropore membrane increases from 110 to 660 Pa the resonance frequency of bubbles shifts to lower values by as much as 7%.     

Helium implanted CuHf as studied by TDPAC and positron lifetime measurements

¹⁸¹Ta time differential perturbed angular correlation (TDPAC) and positron lifetime measurements were carried out on homogeneously α-implanted CuHf samples. TDPAC measurements indicate the trapping of vacancy clusters and helium associated defect complexes by Hf atoms. The presence of helium-vacancy complexes and helium stabilised voids has been identified by positron lifetime measurements. Further the nucleation and growth stages of helium bubbles have been identified. TDPAC and positron lifetime measurements indicate that Hf atoms act as heterogeneous nucleating centers for helium bubbles. Hf atoms are found to suppress the bubble growth in CuHf as indicated by the results of positron lifetime measurements.     

Radiation defects induced by helium implantation in gold-based alloys investigated by positron annihilation spectroscopy

The formation of gas bubbles in metallic materials may result in drastic degradation of in-service properties. In order to investigate this effect in high density and medium-low melting temperature (T _M) alloys, positron annihilation spectroscopy measurements were performed on helium-implanted gold–silver solid solutions after isochronal annealing treatments. Three recovery stages are observed, attributed to the migration and elimination of defects not stabilized by helium atoms, helium bubble nucleation and bubble growth. Similarities with other metals are found for the recovery stages involving bubble nucleation and growth processes. Lifetime measurements indicate that He implantation leads to the formation of small and over-pressurized bubbles that generate internal stresses in the material. A comprehensive picture is drawn for possible mechanisms of helium bubble evolution. Two values of activation energy (0.26 and 0.53 eV) are determined below and above 0.7T _M, respectively, from the variation of the helium bubble radius during the bubble growth stage. The migration and coalescence mechanism, which accounts for these very low activation energies, controls the helium bubble growth.     

Stable and runaway bubble merger in a model for Rayleigh-Taylor unstable interfaces

A statistical model for the growth of bubbles in a Rayleigh-Taylor unstable interface is analyzed. Runaway and uniform growth regimes are observed. Starting from a random configuration, in which neighboring bubbles are uncorrelated, runaway is found to be the expected initial transient with velocities and accelerations growing exponentially. However neighboring bubble correlations develop dynamically, which may lead to a self-limiting regime of uniform growth and constant acceleration. The observed constant acceleration rate is non-universal.     

水中气泡之间的声相互作用

单个气泡的声衰减的实验结果可以用热传导粘滞和辐射损失来解释,但对于气泡层中(这里有许多气泡)的实验来说,上述机理却不能解释。因为根据这些机理算得的理论值比实验值小很多,这一问题三十多年来尚未解决。本文考虑气泡之间的声相互作用,算得的相互作用场和原始入射场有90°的相位差,这等效于在每个气泡上附加了一项阻力,从而使其阻尼增大很多。应用本文理论与上述实验结果比较,两者符合得很好。本文理论也指出,声相互作用并不改变气泡的共振频率,只是使其共振曲线展宽。当声波频率低于共振频率时,气泡的伴振质量增大,劲度减小。当频率高于共振频率时,情况则相反。 关键词：     

Effects of adjacent bubble on spatiotemporal evolutions of mechanical stresses surrounding bubbles oscillating in tissues

The cavitation dynamics and mechanical stress in viscoelastic tissues, as the primary mechanisms of some ultrasound therapies, are extremely complex due to the interactions of cavitation bubble with adjacent bubbles and surrounding tissues. Therefore, the cavitation dynamics and resultant mechanical stress of two-interacting bubbles in the viscoelastic tissues are numerically investigated, especially focusing on the effects of the adjacent bubble. The results demonstrate that the mechanical stress is highly dependent on the bubble dynamics. The compressive stress and tensile stress are generated at the stage of bubble expansion and collapse stage, respectively. Furthermore, within the initial parameters examined in this paper, the effects of the adjacent bubble will distinctly suppress the radial expansion of the small bubble and consequently lead its associated stresses to decrease. Owing to the superimposition of two stress fields, the mechanical stresses surrounding the small bubble in the direction of the neighboring bubble are smaller than those in other directions. For two interacting cavitation bubbles, the suppression effects of the nearby bubble on both the cavitation dynamics and the stresses surrounding the small bubble increase as the ultrasound amplitude and the initial radius of the large bubble increase, whereas they decrease with the inter-bubble distance increasing. Moreover, increasing the tissue viscoelasticity will reduce the suppression effects of the nearby bubble, except in instances where the compressive stress and tensile stress first increase and then decrease with the tissue elasticity and viscosity increasing respectively. This study can provide a further understanding of the mechanisms of cavitation-associated mechanical damage to the adjacent tissues or cells.     

Radial oscillation and translational motion of a gas bubble in a micro-cavity

According to classical nucleation theory, a gas nucleus can grow into a cavitation bubble when the ambient pressure is negative. Here, the growth process of a gas nucleus in a micro-cavity was simplified to two “events”, and the full confinement effect of the surrounding medium of the cavity was considered by including the bulk modulus in the equation of state. The Rayleigh–Plesset-like equation of the cavitation bubble in the cavity was derived to model the radial oscillation and translational motion of the cavitation bubble in the local acoustic field. The numerical results show that the nucleation time of the cavitation bubble is sensitive to the initial position of the gas nucleus. The cavity size affects the duration of the radial oscillation of the cavitation bubble, where the duration is shorter for smaller cavities. The equilibrium radius of a cavitation bubble grown from a gas nucleus increases with increasing size of the cavity. There are two possible types of translational motion: reciprocal motion around the center of the cavity and motion toward the cavity wall. The growth process of gas nuclei into cavitation bubbles is also dependent on the compressibility of the surrounding medium and the magnitude of the negative pressure. Therefore, gas nuclei in a liquid cavity can be excited by acoustic waves to form cavitation bubbles, and the translational motion of the cavitation bubbles can be easily observed owing to the confining influence of the medium outside the cavity.     

Improvements to the methods used to measure bubble attenuation using an underwater acoustical resonator

Active acoustic techniques are commonly used to measure oceanic bubble size distributions, by inverting the bulk acoustical properties of the water (usually the attenuation) to infer the bubble population. Acoustical resonators have previously been used to determine attenuation over a wide range of frequencies (10-200 kHz) in a single measurement, corresponding to the simultaneous measurement of a wide range of bubble sizes (20-300 μm radii). However, there is now also considerable interest in acquiring measurements of bubbles with radii smaller than 16 μm, since these are thought to be important for ocean optics and as tracers for near-surface flow. To extend the bubble population measurement to smaller radii, it is necessary to extend the attenuation measurements to higher frequencies. Although the principles of resonator operation do not change as the frequency increases, the assumptions previously made during the spectral analysis may no longer be valid. In order to improve the methods used to calculate attenuation from acoustical resonator outputs, a more complete analysis of the resonator operation is presented here than has been published previously. This approach allows for robust attenuation measurements over a much wider frequency range and enables accurate measurements from lower-quality spectral peaks.     

Nonlinear oscillation and acoustic scattering of bubbles

The scattered acoustic pressure and scattered cross section of bubbles is studied using the scattered theory of bubbles. The nonlinear oscillations of bubbles and the scattering acoustic fields of a spherical bubble cluster are numerically simulated based on the bubble dynamic and fluid dynamic. The influences of the interaction between bubbles on scattering acoustic field of bubbles are researched. The results of numerical simulation show that the oscillation phases of bubbles are delayed to a certain extent at different positions in the bubble cluster, but the radii of bubbles during oscillation do not differ too much at different positions. Furthermore, directivity of the acoustic scattering of bubbles is obvious. The scattered acoustic pressures of bubbles are different at the different positions inside and outside of the bubble cluster. The scattering acoustic fields of a spherical bubble cluster depend on the driving pressure amplitude, driving frequency, the equilibrium radii of bubbles, bubble number and the radius of the spherical bubble cluster. These theoretical predictions provide a further understanding of physics behind ultrasonic technique and should be useful for guiding ultrasonic application.     

Bubble boiling in droplets of water and lithium bromide water solution

The dynamics of growth and interaction of vapor bubbles in droplets of pure water and LiBr water solution on a horizontal wall were investigated in a wide superheating range. The growth rates of bubbles were determined both in a distillate droplet and in a salt solution droplet. The bubble growth rate in a pure water droplet at the final stage is somewhat lower than in pool boiling. The bubble growth rate in a salt solution is substantially lower than for pure water. Due to the bubble density maldistribution, the vapor flow density is appreciably higher at the droplet edges than on the droplet axis. Collective behavior of the bubbles possesses both stochastic character and elements of self-organization. The thermal measurements were carried out by means of high-speed video and blowup thermal imager.     

The effect of nearby bubbles on array gain

The coherent processing of signals from multiple hydrophones in an array offers improvements in angular resolution and signal-to-noise ratio. When the array is steered in a particular direction, the signals arriving from that direction are added in phase, and any signals arriving from other directions are not. Array gain (AG) is a measure of how much the signal arriving from the steering direction is amplified relative to signals arriving from all other directions. The subject of this paper is the manner in which the AG of an acoustic array operating in water that contains air bubbles is affected by scattering from nearby bubbles. The effects of bubbles on acoustic attenuation and dispersion are considered separately from their effects on AG. Acoustic measurements made in bubbly water using the AB Wood tank at the Institute of Sound and Vibration Research, University of Southampton, in June 2008 show that as bubble density increases, relative phase shifts in individual hydrophone signals increase and signal correlation among the hydrophones is reduced. A theory and numerical simulation linking bubble density at the hydrophone to the AG is in good agreement with the measurements up to the point where multiple scattering becomes important.     

The effect of reverberation on the damping of bubbles

The measurement of an acoustic emission, or scatter, from a bubble is not difficult. However, an accurate interpretation of that signal in terms of the bubble dynamics may require careful consideration. The study presented here is at first sight relatively simple: comparison of the predicted and measured quality factors of injected bubbles. While the measurement is normally done by monitoring the decay of passive emissions from a bubble, this technique becomes difficult with smaller bubbles. Therefore an active technique is introduced, which removes all the frequency-dependent effects on the measurement (such as transducer response) bar one. That, critically, is the effect of the change in the bubble resonance (frequency and damping) which results from the loading on the bubble due to the reverberant field. The vast majority of theoretical treatments of bubble acoustics assume free field conditions, yet the environmental conditions rarely if ever match these. Therefore measurements of bubble damping are compared both with the established free field theory, and with a new theory relevant to the prevailing reverberant conditions (whether caused by tank surfaces, monochromatic neighboring bubbles, or both).     

Numerical simulations of acoustic cavitation noise with the temporal fluctuation in the number of bubbles

Numerical simulations of cavitation noise have been performed under the experimental conditions reported by Ashokkumar et al. (2007) [26]. The results of numerical simulations have indicated that the temporal fluctuation in the number of bubbles results in the broad-band noise. “Transient” cavitation bubbles, which disintegrate into daughter bubbles mostly in a few acoustic cycles, generate the broad-band noise as their short lifetimes cause the temporal fluctuation in the number of bubbles. Not only active bubbles in light emission (sonoluminescence) and chemical reactions but also inactive bubbles generate the broad-band noise. On the other hand, “stable” cavitation bubbles do not generate the broad-band noise. The weaker broad-band noise from a low-concentration surfactant solution compared to that from pure water observed experimentally by Ashokkumar et al. is caused by the fact that most bubbles are shape stable in a low-concentration surfactant solution due to the smaller ambient radii than those in pure water. For a relatively high number density of bubbles, the bubble–bubble interaction intensifies the broad-band noise. Harmonics in cavitation noise are generated by both “stable” and “transient” cavitation bubbles which pulsate nonlinearly with the period of ultrasound.     

Experimental investigation on flow boiling bubble motion under ultrasonic field in vertical minichannel by using bubble tracking algorithm

Bubble dynamics is important in flow boiling of minichannel, and ultrasonic field effects bubble behaviors. However, flow boiling bubble movements in minichannels under ultrasonic field have received little research attention and are still poorly understood. In this paper, the effects of ultrasonic field on bubble dynamics are experimentally studied by capturing the bubble motion behaviors of the flow boiling bubbles. The ultrasonic frequencies are set to 23, 28, 32, and 40 kHz. Bubble tracking algorithm, which studies the growth, trajectories, velocities, and traveled distances for bubbles, is created to qualitatively describe bubble motion behavior of flow boiling in minichannel. It is found that after the application of ultrasound, the detachment frequency, velocity, and travel distance of the bubbles significantly increases, and the growth behavior and trajectory are extremely complex, the two-phase gas-liquid flow is extremely unstable. The bubbles gain kinetic energy as the ultrasound frequency increases. Finally, numerical simulations are used to quantitatively investigate the mechanism of bubble motion in microchannels under ultrasonic fields.     

The acoustic emissions of cavitation bubbles in stretched vortices

Pairs of unequal strength, counter-rotating vortices were produced in order to examine the inception, dynamics, and acoustic emission of cavitation bubbles in rapidly stretching vortices. The acoustic signatures of these cavitation bubbles were characterized during their inception, growth, and collapse. Growing and collapsing bubbles often produced a sharp, broadband, pop sound. The spectrum of these bubbles, and the peak resonant frequency can generally be related to quiescent flow bubble dynamics and corresponding resonant frequencies. However, some elongated cavitation bubbles produced a short tonal burst, or chirp, with frequencies on the order of a few kilohertz. Theses frequencies are too low to be related to resonant frequencies of a bubble in a quiescent flow. Instead, the frequency content of the acoustic signal during bubble inception and growth is related to the volumetric oscillations of the bubble while it interacted with vortical flow that surrounds the bubble (i.e., the resonant frequency of the vortex-bubble system). A relationship was determined between the observed peak frequency of the oscillations, the highly stretched vortex properties, and the water nuclei content. It was found that different cavitation spectra could relate to different flow and fluid properties and therefore would not scale in the same manner.     

Experimental study of detonating gas bubble oscillations using a shock tube

Oscillations of bubbles containing a mixture of a detonating gas with argon in their interior are studied. The bubbles are excited for oscillations by a pressure step generated in a shock tube. A bubble wall motion is observed by a rotating mirror camera and a radiated pressure wave by a needle hydrophone. For weak pressure steps the bubble behaves as an ordinary gas bubble. However, above a certain pressure step threshold ignition of the detonating gas occurs. Due to released heat the bubble oscillation intensity is amplified. The data obtained are used to estimate pressures and temperatures in the compressed bubble.The experimental part of this research was carried out during the author's stay at the Shock Wave Laboratory of the Technical University in Aachen. The author wishes to thank Professor A. E. Beylich for enabling him to do this work, and H. Kleine for taking all the photographs. The author is also grateful to Dr. K. Hel for helpful discussion on the ignition of gas mixtures. During this research the author was the recipient of a grant awarded by the Heinrich Hertz Foundation, which is gratefully acknowledged.     

Time Travel and Warp Drives: A Scientific Guide to Shortcuts through Time and Space,by Allen Everett and Thomas Roman

In favourable circumstances magnetic domains can be made to move very rapidly through a ferromagnetic material in response to an applied magnetic field. Recently this phenomenon has been exploited in a novel situation where cylindrical magnetic domains or magnetic ‘bubbles’ are used to store and manipulate information in a binary form.

Because of their small size and high mobility bubbles may be arranged to form a memory which has a high storage density and which can be quickly accessed. In recent years much effort has gone into developing suitable materials to support these bubbles and into the design of optimum device configurations. Obviously there have been many accompanying investigations into the physics of bubble domains and methods of observing them.

One of the important observational techniques, particularly for small bubbles, is electron microscopy which gives information on bubble structure which is unobtainable by any other method. This review seeks first to explain what magnetic bubbles are, secondly to discus briefly suitable materials and the workings of bubble devices and finally to outline the theory of observing bubbles in the electron microscope and the results of some experimental observations.