Anharmonic vibrational properties of explosives from temperature-dependent Raman

Raman spectra from 50 to 3500 cm(-1) and 4-296 K are analyzed for molecular crystal powders of the explosives pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN), beta-octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX), and 1,3,5-triamino-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene (TATB) and the inert naphthalene. Temperature-dependent Raman spectroscopy is utilized for its sensitivity to anharmonic couplings between thermally populated phonons and higher frequency vibrations relevant to shock up-pumping. The data are analyzed with anharmonic perturbation theory, which is shown to have significant fundamental limitations in application to real data. Fitting to perturbation theory revealed no significant differences in averaged anharmonicities among the three explosives, all of which exhibited larger averaged anharmonicities than naphthalene by a factor of 3. Calculations estimating the multiphonon densities of states also failed to correlate clearly with shock sensitivity. However, striking differences in temperature-dependent lifetimes were obvious: PETN has long lived phonons and vibrons, HMX has long lived phonons but short lived vibrons, while TATB has short lived phonons and vibrons at low temperature. Naphthalene, widely used as a model system, has significantly different anharmonicities and density of states from any of the explosives. The data presented suggest the further hypothesis that hindered vibrational energy transfer in the molecular crystals is a significant factor in shock sensitivity.     

Investigation of the slide of the single layer of the 1,3,5-triamino-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene crystal: sliding potential and orientation

This paper reports for the first time that the sliding potential of a single layer of the 1,3,5-triamino-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene (TATB) crystal is within 0-77.9 kJ per mol unit cell or 0-29.4 MJ/m(3) and that the most possible sliding orientation is approximately along one line. As compared to another easy-slide material, graphite, TATB has a higher sliding potential and fewer sliding routes and furthermore is more difficult to slide. However, TATB can still slide due to its highest sliding potential points below the apparent activation energy of the decomposition energy of any common explosive. This slide may be the main reason as to why TATB can be used as a desensitizer versus mechanical stimuli.     

Computational investigation on the desensitizing mechanism of graphite in explosives versus mechanical stimuli: compression and glide

A desensitizing mechanism of graphite in explosives versus mechanical stimuli was investigated using computational methods including density function theory and molecular dynamics. Dependences of energy change versus compression ratio and internal stress versus compression at absolute zero degree showed that the most possible compression was along the c-axis of graphite crystal. The result of molecular dynamics at room temperature indicated that the slide can readily occur between neighbor layers, but the distance between them can hardly change. The calculated potential energy of the slide of graphite within 0-0.19 kJ/cm3 is much larger than the potential energy of compression of common explosives to the extent of no detonation, for example, HMX, 0-0.046 kJ/cm3. It implied that the kinetic energy induced by mechanical stimuli can easily and partly convert into the potential energy of the slide and prevent explosives from forming hot spots. This should be the root reason for graphite used as a desensitizer in explosives.     

The force-field derivation and atomistic simulation of HMX–fluoropolymer mixture explosives

We get ab initio-based force field between octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX) and fluoropolymer. The HMX is a high-energy explosive, and fluoropolymer is a binder. By using this force field, the mechanical properties of mixture explosives are investigated. Nine kinds of polymers are considered: polyvinylidene fluoride, polychlorotrifluoroethene, polytetrafluoroethene, polyhexafluoropropene, F2311, F2312, F2313, F2314, and Viton-A. The deformation processes of explosives are simulated, the structure evolution and energy variation are calculated, and the coating and plasticizing properties of binders to HMX are obtained.     

Molecular dynamics simulation of mechanical properties of TATB/fluorine-polymer PBXs along different surfaces

TATB (1,3,5-triamino-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene) is the well-known high insensitive explosive. With TATB as the main body (90% and above) the polymer bonded explosives ( PBXs) contain a small amount of poly-mers (5%―10%). The composite materials with good saf…     

环四甲撑四硝胺/1,3,5-三氨基-2,4,6-三硝基苯共晶炸药的分子模拟研究

构建环四甲撑四硝胺 (HMX) /1,3,5-三氨基-2,4,6三硝基苯 (TATB)不同的共晶结构模型,用分子动力学(MD)模拟得到其平衡结构。基于平衡结构进行X射线粉末衍射（XRD）图谱模拟和能量计算。结果表明,与纯组分相比,HMX/TATB共晶结构的X射线粉末衍射图与主成分HMX相似,并均有新峰出现;TATB在HMX表面自由能最高、生长速率最慢的 (0 1 1) 晶面上发生取代后的能量最低,结构最稳定,据此推测在制备HMX/TATB共晶炸药过程中,TATB分子更容易进入HMX自由能高的晶面,得到结构稳定的共晶而使HMX变得更为钝感。     

Molecular dynamics simulation and density functional theory insight into the cocrystal explosive of hexaazaisowurtzitane/nitroguanidine

Theoretical methods involving molecular dynamics (MD) simulation and density functional theory were performed to investigate the different molecular ratios, mechanical Properties, structure, trigger bond, and intermolecular interaction of hexaazaisowurtzitane (CL‐20)/nitroguanidine (NQ) cocrystal explosive. Results of MD simulation show that CL‐20 and NQ packed in ratios of 1:1 present the larger binding energy and better mechanical properties than any other molecular ratios, which indicates 1:1 cocrystal can form the stable crystal structure. Shorter length and larger dissociation energy of trigger bond in composite structure than in isolated CL‐20 component suggests that the cocrystal may exhibit less sensitive than CL‐20. Analyses of atoms in molecules, reduced density gradient, and natural bond orbital confirm that intermolecular interactions are mainly derived from a series of weak hydrogen bond and strong vdW forces, involving of NH···O, CH···O, CH···N, O···N, and O···O. Additionally, composite structures of 2 and 3 bringing us more attractive performance will act as a key role in constructing of CL‐20/NQ cocrystal explosive. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

TATB基PBX结合能的分子动力学模拟

用分子动力学（MD）方法, 模拟计算了四种氟聚合物(聚偏二氟乙烯（PVDF）、聚三氟氯乙烯（PCTFE）、氟橡胶（F₂₃₁₁)、氟树脂(F₂₃₁₄))与TATB(1,3,5- 三氨基- 2,4,6- 三硝基苯)晶体的相互作用. 结果发现, 四种氟聚物与TATB的结合能大小排序为PVDF>F₂₃₁₁>F₂₃₁₄>PCTFE, 各氟聚物在TATB不同晶面上的结合能大小排序为(001)>(010)>(100), 结合能主要由分子间氢键决定.     

Intermolecular Vibration Energy Transfer Process in Two CL-20-Based Cocrystals Theoretically Revealed by Two-Dimensional Infrared Spectra

Inspired by the recent cocrystallization and theory of energetic materials, we theoretically investigated the intermolecular vibrational energy transfer process and the non-covalent intermolecular interactions between explosive compounds. The intermolecular interactions between 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and 2,4,6,8,10,12-hexanitro-2,4,6,8,10,12-hexaazaisowurtzitane (CL-20) and between 1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocane (HMX) and CL-20 were studied using calculated two-dimensional infrared (2D IR) spectra and the independent gradient model based on the Hirshfeld partition (IGMH) method, respectively. Based on the comparison of the theoretical infrared spectra and optimized geometries with experimental results, the theoretical models can effectively reproduce the experimental geometries. By analyzing cross-peaks in the 2D IR spectra of TNT/CL-20, the intermolecular vibrational energy transfer process between TNT and CL-20 was calculated, and the conclusion was made that the vibrational energy transfer process between CL-20 and TNTII (TNTIII) is relatively slower than between CL-20 and TNTI. As the vibration energy transfer is the bridge of the intermolecular interactions, the weak intermolecular interactions were visualized using the IGMH method, and the results demonstrate that the intermolecular non-covalent interactions of TNT/CL-20 include van der Waals (vdW) interactions and hydrogen bonds, while the intermolecular non-covalent interactions of HMX/CL-20 are mainly comprised of vdW interactions. Further, we determined that the intermolecular interaction can stabilize the trigger bond in TNT/CL-20 and HMX/CL-20 based on Mayer bond order density, and stronger intermolecular interactions generally indicate lower impact sensitivity of energetic materials. We believe that the results obtained in this work are important for a better understanding of the cocrystal mechanism and its application in the field of energetic materials.     

Nature and physical origin of CH/pi interaction: significant difference from conventional hydrogen bonds

Recently reported high-level ab initio calculations and gas phase spectroscopic measurements show that the nature of CH/pi interactions is considerably different from conventional hydrogen bonds, although the CH/pi interactions were often regarded as the weakest class of hydrogen bonds. The major source of attraction in the CH/pi interaction is the dispersion interaction and the electrostatic contribution is small, while the electrostatic interaction is mainly responsible for the attraction in the conventional hydrogen bonds. The nature of the "typical" CH/pi interactions is similar to that of van der Waals interactions, if some exceptional "activated" CH/pi interactions of highly acidic C-H bonds are excluded. Shifts of C-H vibrational frequencies and electronic spectra also support the similarity. The hydrogen bond is important in controlling structures of molecular assemblies, since the hydrogen bond is sufficiently strong and directional due to the large electrostatic contribution. On the other hand, the directionality of the "typical" CH/pi interaction is very weak. Although the "typical" CH/pi interaction is often regarded as an important interaction in controlling the structures of molecular assemblies as in the cases of conventional hydrogen bonds, the importance of the "typical" CH/pi interactions is questionable.     

Model chemistry calculations of thiophene dimer interactions: origin of pi-stacking

The intermolecular interaction energies of thiophene dimers have been calculated by using an aromatic intermolecular interaction (AIMI) model (a model chemistry for the evaluation of intermolecular interactions between aromatic molecules). The CCSD(T) interaction energy at the basis set limit has been estimated from the MP2 interaction energy near the basis set limit and the CCSD(T) correction term obtained by using a medium-size basis set. The calculated interaction energies of the parallel and perpendicular thiophene dimers are -1.71 and -3.12 kcal/mol, respectively. The substantial attractive interaction in the thiophene dimer, even where the molecules are well separated, shows that the major source of attraction is not short-range interactions such as charge transfer but rather long-range interactions such as electrostatic and dispersion. The inclusion of electron correlation increases the attraction significantly. The dispersion interaction is found to be the major source of attraction in the thiophene dimer. The calculated total interaction energy of the thiophene dimer is highly orientation dependent. Although electrostatic interaction is substantially weaker than dispersion interaction, it is highly orientation dependent, and therefore electrostatic interaction play an important role in the orientation dependence of the total interaction energy. The large attractive interaction in the perpendicular dimer is the cause of the preference for the herringbone structure in the crystals of nonsubstituted oligothiophenes (alpha-terthienyls), and the steric repulsion between the beta-substituents is the cause of the pi-stacked structure in the crystals of some beta-substituted oligothiophenes.     

Theoretical studies on high energetic density nitramine explosives containing pyridine

The insensitive property of explosives containing pyridine is combined with the high energy of nitramine explosives,and the concept of new nitramine explosives containing pyridine is proposed,into which nitramine group with N N bonds is introduced as much as possible.Based on molecular structures of nitramine compounds containing pyridine,density functional theory(DFT) calculation method was applied to study designed molecules at B3LYP/6-31+G(d) level.The geometric and electronic structures,density,heats of formation(HOF),detonation performance and bond dissociation energies(BDE) were investigated and comparable to 1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazinane(RDX) and 1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocane(HMX).The simulation results reveal that molecules B and D perform similarly to traditionally used RDX.Molecule E outperform RDX,with performance that approach that of HMX and may be considered as potential candidate of high energy density compound(HEDC).These results provide basic information for molecular design of novel high energetic density compounds.     

Protonmotive force: development of electrostatic drivers for synthetic molecular motors

Ferrocene has been investigated as a platform for developing protonmotive electrostatic drivers for molecular motors. When two 3-pyridine groups are substituted to the (rapidly rotating) cyclopentadienyl (Cp) rings of ferrocene, one on each Cp, it is shown that the (Cp) eclipsed, pi-stacked rotameric conformation is preferred both in solution and in the solid state. Upon quaternization of both of the pyridines substituents, either by protonation or by alkylation, it is shown that the preferred rotameric conformation is one where the pyridinium groups are rotated away from the fully pi-stacked conformation. Electrostatic calculations indicate that the rotation is caused by the electrostatic repulsion between the charges. Consistently, when the pi-stacking energy is increased pi-stacked population increases, and conversely when the electrostatic repulsion is increased pi-stacked population is decreased. This work serves to provide an approximate estimate of the amount of torque that the electrostatically driven ferrocene platform can generate when incorporated into a molecular motor. The overall conclusion is that the electrostatic interaction energy between dicationic ferrocene dipyridyl systems is similar to the pi-stacking interaction energy and, consequently, at least tricationic systems are required to fully uncouple the pi-stacked pyridine substituents.     

冲击载荷下TATB晶体滑移和各向异性的分子动力学研究

采用ReaxFF反应力场和分子动力学方法,研究了1,3,5-三氨基-2,4,6-三硝基苯(TATB)炸药晶体在沿不同方向冲击载荷下的滑移和各向异性。冲击方向分别垂直于(101)、(111)、(011)、(110)、(010)、(100)和(001)晶面,冲击强度为10 GPa。研究结果表明,各冲击方向下可能被激发的滑移系均在{001}面,而其它滑移系均因很大的剪切阻力不容易被激发,这与TATB晶体沿c轴的层状结构和平面分子结构相符。预测了七个冲击方向下最容易被激发的滑移系,分别为(101)/{001}100、(111)/{001}010、(011)/{001}010、(110)/{001}010、(010)/{001}110、(100)/{001}120和(001)/{001}010。TATB晶体的冲击响应具有各向异性,动力学过程中体系的应力、能量、温度和化学反应都依赖于冲击方向。对垂直于(100)和(001)晶面的冲击,体系在滑移过程中遭遇的剪切阻力较高、持续时间较长,使得能量和温度较快升高,化学反应较容易发生;对垂直于(101)和(111)晶面的冲击,体系在滑移过程中遭遇的阻力较小且出现次数少,使得能量和温度缓慢升高,化学反应不易发生;对其余冲击方向,体系的响应居中。据此评价了7个冲击方向的相对敏感程度:(101)、(111)(011)、(110)、(010)(100)、(001)。本研究有助于在微观层次深入认识动载荷下TATB的响应机制、结构与性能的关系,为高能低感炸药的设计和研制提供理论参考。     

HMX/TATB复合材料弹性性能的MD模拟

用分子动力学(MD)方法COMPASS力场, 分别在正则系综(NVT)和等温等压系综(NPT)下, 模拟计算了著名常用高能炸药HMX(环四甲撑四硝胺)与著名钝感炸药TATB (1,3,5-三氨基-2,4,6三硝基苯)所构成的混合体系在室温时的弹性性能和结合能. 结果表明, 在NVT和NPT两种系综下模拟所得结果呈平行一致的趋势; 与纯HMX相比, HMX/TATB复合材料的拉伸模量、体模量和剪切模量均有所下降; 在NVT系综下, 还完成了HMX/TATB混合体系的不同温度的MD模拟. 发现当温度在245～345 K范围时, 体系的刚性和弹性变化很小; 但当温度达到395 K时, 材料的刚性减弱, 柔性增强.     

TATB晶体结构的周期性密度泛函理论研究

对TATB晶体进行DFT-B3LYP/6-31G~(* *)周期性计算研究，求得其能带能带结 构和电子结构。探讨了结构-性能关系，从带隙约为4.1eV扒知TATB晶体的导电性处 于半导体和绝缘体之间，计算所得升华热为136.25kJ·mol~(-1)， 与实验值良好 相符，从原子间距和Mülliken集居分析，发现TATB晶体中同一层分子之间存在氢 键，而不同层之间距离较大，作用较弱，TATB分子中硝基氧带较多负电荷而氨基氢 带较多正电荷，这使TATB很难成为电子受体和给体，故化学上很稳定，考察晶体中 点电荷静电势，发现其在(001)面上的投影呈均匀分布，而在(100)和(010)面上的 揣影则有明显界面，表明同层分子间电子呈高度离域，异层之间相互作用极小，这 可解释TATB晶体沿c轴鼓胀以及受热循环后长大的各向异性和不可复原性等实验事 实。     

Coupled semiempirical quantum mechanics and molecular mechanics (QM/MM) calculations on the aqueous solvation free energies of ionized molecules

The aqueous solvation free energies of ionized molecules were computed using a coupled quantum mechanical and molecular mechanical (QM/MM) model based on the AM1, MNDO, and PM3 semiempirical molecular orbital methods for the solute molecule and the TIP3P molecular mechanics model for liquid water. The present work is an extension of our model for neutral solutes where we assumed that the total free energy is the sum of components derived from the electrostatic/polarization terms in the Hamiltonian plus an empirical “nonpolar” term. The electrostatic/polarization contributions to the solvation free energies were computed using molecular dynamics (MD) simulation and thermodynamic integration techniques, while the nonpolar contributions were taken from the literature. The contribution to the electrostatic/polarization component of the free energy due to nonbonded interactions outside the cutoff radii used in the MD simulations was approximated by a Born solvation term. The experimental free energies were reproduced satisfactorily using variational parameters from the vdW terms as in the original model, in addition to a parameter from the one-electron integral terms. The new one-electron parameter was required to account for the short-range effects of overlapping atomic charge densities. The radial distribution functions obtained from the MD simulations showed the expected H-bonded structures between the ionized solute molecule and solvent molecules. We also obtained satisfactory results by neglecting both the empirical nonpolar term and the electronic polarization of the solute, i.e., by implementing a nonpolarization model. ©1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Comput Chem 20: 1028–1038, 1999     

分子动力学模拟浓度和温度对TATB/PCTFE PBX力学性能的影响

为探讨高聚物粘结炸药(Polymer Bonded Explosive, PBX)的力学性能随温度和高聚物浓度而变化的规律, 用分子动力学(MD)方法和compass力场, 对著名高能炸药1,3,5-三氨基-2,4,6-三硝基苯(TATB)与常用高聚物粘结剂聚三氟氯乙烯(PCTFE)所构成的TATB/PCTFE PBX进行模拟计算. 结果表明, 在一定范围内, 随高聚物浓度的增加, PBX的弹性系数和模量减小, 表明其刚性减小、弹性增加; 而随温度的升高, PBX的刚性减小、弹性增强. 还发现PBX的结合能随浓度增高而增大, 随温度升高而减小.     

3‐Nitramino‐4‐nitrofurazan: Enhancing the Stability and Energetic Properties by Introduction of Alkylnitramines

Nitration of 3‐amino‐4‐nitrofurazan with N₂O₅ yielded the corresponding nitramine. 3‐Nitramino‐4‐nitrofurazan is a very promising explosive regarding detonation performance but it suffers from its hygroscopicity, low thermal stability, and high sensitivity to external stimuli. The introduction of other nitramine groups either by alkylation with 1‐chloro‐2‐nitrazapropane or by combination of two 3‐nitramino‐4‐nitrofurazans yielded the corresponding more stable and non‐hygroscopic open‐chain nitramines. Their molecular structures were investigated by single‐crystal X‐ray diffraction. The remarkable difference of their impact sensitivities were evaluated by calculation of their electrostatic potential of the molecular surfaces. Furthermore, the detonation parameters and combustion parameters of the open‐chain nitramines were computed with the EXPLO5 (v. 6.02) computer code.     

Ab initioMODPOT/VRDDO/MERGE calculations on energetic compounds. III. Nitroexplosives: Polyaminopolynitrobenzenes (including DATB,TATB, and tetryl)

Quantum chemical ab initio MODPOT /VRDDO calculations have been carried out on the following aminonitrobenzenes for which crystal structures had been determined experimentally: 4-nitroaniline; N,N-dimethyl-p-nitroaniline; 2,4,6-trinitroaniline; 1,3-diamino-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene (DATB—Form I); 1,3,5-triamino-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene (TATB); 2,3,4,6-tetranitroaniline; N-methyl-N,2,4,6-tetranitroaniline (Tetryl); and N-(β,β,β-trifluoroethyl)-N,2,4,6-tetranitroaniline. These quantum chemical calculations were performed on the molecules in their conformations as found in their crystal structures. The calculations were carried out with our own ab initio programs which also incorporate as options several desirable features for calculations on large molecules: ab initio effective core model potentials (MODPOT) which enable calculations of valence electrons only explicitly, yet accurately, and a charge conserving integral prescreening evaluation (which we named VRDDO-variable retention of diatomic differential overlap) especially effective for spatially extended molecules. Aminonitrobenzenes are especially interesting since there are inherent intramolecular ring distortions and deviations from planarity and intramolecular hydrogen bonds as well as intermolecular hydrogen bonds causing further deviations from planarity. The theoretical indices resulting from the quantum chemical calculations are relevant to a number of properties and behavioral characteristics of these molecules, both intramolecular and intermolecular. The charges on the atoms [from the gross atomic populations (GAP 's)] are needed for calculation of the atomic multipole–atomic multipole electrostatic contributions (a dominant factor) to the intermolecular interaction energies. These electrostatic interaction energies are part of the input necessary for calculations on the crystal packing and densities of these molecules. These GAP 's are also of value in interpreting the experimental photoelectron and ESCA spectra of these molecules. The total overlap populations (TOP 's) between atoms are related to the inherent bond strengths and can serve as a quantitative replacement for the old empirical bond length-bond order-bond energy relationship still used by explosives chemists to identify the “target bonds” (the weakest bonds). The TOP 's are of considerable value in predicting and tracing initiation and subsequent steps of explosive phenomena. The molecular orbital energies of the lowest unoccupied orbitals are of interest since nitroexplosives have been implicated in testicular toxicity and the initial metabolic activation appears to proceed through a one-electron reduction of the nitroexplosive.