A simple approach for fabricating solid-contact ion-selective electrodes using nanomaterials as transducers

A simple and robust approach for the development of solid-state ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) using nanomaterials as solid contacts is described. The electrodes are fabricated by using the mixture of an ionic liquid (IL) and a nanomaterial as intermediate layer, formed by melting the IL. Tetradodecylammonium tetrakis(4-chlorophenyl)borate (ETH 500) is chosen as an model of IL to provide strong adhesion between the inner glassy carbon electrode and the intermediate layer. Nanomaterials including single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and graphene were used as active ion-to-electron transducers between the glassy carbon electrode and the ionophore-doped ISE membrane. By using the proposed approach, the solid-contact Cu²⁺- and Pb²⁺-selective electrodes based on ETH 500/SWCNTs and ETH 500/graphene as transducers, respectively, have been fabricated. The proposed electrodes show detection limits in the nanomolar range and exhibit a good response time and excellent stability.     

A ladder conjugated polymer transducer for solid-contact Cu2+-selective electrodes

In recent years, there has been a pronounced interest in solid-contact ion-selective electrodes （SC-ISEs）, with emphasis on the use of conducting polymers as ion-to-electron transducer. In this work, a ladder conjugated polymer, thieno[3,2-b]thiophene （LCPT）, was investigated in fabricating Cu2＋-selective electrodes for the first time. The resulting electrodes were characterized by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy （EIS）, chronopotentiometry, and the water layer test. Results proved that the active LCPT facilitates the ion-to-electron transduction, and avoids the detrimental aqueous layer formed at the interface of SC-ISEs.     

Electrochemical evaluation of self-disassociation of PKA upon activation by cAMP

The allosteric reaction of protein kinase A (PKA) upon binding of cyclic AMP (cAMP) is revealed with an electrochemical technique through the redox current change of an electrochemically active marker. The different effect of cAMP's regulation at a distinct concentration level is obtained in this system. The influence of structural analogues is also examined with respect to the affinity and special selectivity. This study presents an electrochemical approach to the rapid and sensitive investigation of the protein-ligand interaction in the signal transduction networks.     

导电聚合物构建的高性能固态离子选择电极

基于最新研究文献和自身研究工作,系统总结了以导电聚合物构建的各种高性能固态离子选择电极.导电聚合物所特有的共轭结构以及电子导电和离子导电的双重导电功能使其可以作为离子-电子转换器,从而实现对离子的传感响应与探测.由聚苯胺、聚吡咯和聚噻吩等导电聚合物为转换中间层而构建的离子选择电极可以实现纳摩尔浓度水平的离子传感探测,有望在环境监测、药物医疗和食品安全等诸多方面发挥重要作用.     

Scanning Droplet Cell for Chemoselective Patterning through Local Electroactivation of Protected Quinone Monolayers

A reagentless strategy for template‐free patterning of uniformly inert surfaces is suggested. A layer of p‐hydroquinone (HQ) protected by the tert‐butyldimethylsilyl (TBDMS) group is electrografted onto glassy carbon electrodes. Chemoselective activation is performed through electrochemically controlled cleavage of the TBDMS group, which yields the redox‐active surface‐confined quinone moieties. The latter are shown to undergo electrochemically induced Michael addition, which serves for subsequent functionalization of the electrode surface. Patterning of the TBDMS–quinone‐modified surface is accomplished by using selective localized cleavage of the protecting group. State‐of‐the‐art direct‐mode scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) patterning fails to yield the anticipated interfacial reaction; however, the electrochemical scanning droplet cell (SDC) is capable of conducting the localized chemoselective reaction. In a small area, dictated by the dimensions of the droplet, electrochemically induced cleavage of the protecting group can be performed locally to give rise to arrays of active quinone spots. Upon deprotection, the redox signals, attributed to the hydroquinone/benzoquinone couple, provide the first direct evidence for chemoselective electrochemical patterning of sensitive functionalities. Subsequent SECM studies of the resulting modified areas demonstrate spatial control of the proposed patterning technique.     

欠电位沉积研究现状——II.欠电位沉积的研究方法及其应用

总结了主要的欠电位沉积(upd)的原位研究方法, 包括电化学研究方法(循环伏安(CV)、计时电流(CHR)和电化学阻抗谱(EIS))、界面分析方法(电化学石英晶体微天平(EQCM)和电化学扫描隧道显微镜/电化学原子力显微镜(ECSTM/ECAFM))及X射线分析技术(X 射线吸收谱(XAS)和表面X射线散射(SXS)). 根据这些研究方法, 总结和探讨了许多体系的upd特征, 分析了upd微观特征与宏观的测试结果的对应关系及其原理. 此外, 探讨了基于这些研究方法得出的关于upd的重要结论, 并对比分析了上述研究方法的优缺点. 在upd应用领域的研究方面, 主要从四个方面进行了概述, 涉及功能材料电合成、电分析应用、电化学原子层外延(ECALE)和表征贵金属(或纳米)材料电化学活性面积(ECSA), 并简析了上述应用研究中涉及的关于upd 过程的原理. 最后, 总结了upd研究方法和应用研究的现状并展望了其未来发展趋势.     

Studying electronic transport in polyazulene-ionic liquid systems using infrared vibrational spectroscopy

This paper presents an in situ spectroelectrochemical characterization of polyazulene (PAz) and PAz-C(60) composite films using Fourier Transform Infrared Attenuated Total Reflection (FTIR-ATR) spectroscopy. In situ FTIR-ATR spectra were recorded simultaneously as the films were charged and discharged electrochemically. The aim was to clarify how the use of ILs and the addition of C(60) affected the electronic transport and structural changes occurring in PAz during electrochemical charging. We found that electrosynthesis of PAz in an IL lowered the oxidation potential of the film and improved its electroactivity. The FTIR-ATR data also suggest that PAz with a longer effective conjugation length is obtained during electrosynthesis when using ILs. With in situ FTIR-ATR it is possible to quite accurately determine the onset potential for oxidation/reduction. These values are important since they determine the suitability of the polymer for a specific application. Our experiments indicate that two types of charge carriers are formed during electrochemical oxidation of PAz in an IL. Furthermore, their formation is strongly affected by the addition of C(60) into the film. The type of charge carrier formed affects the electronic and possibly also ionic transport within the film. The inclusion of C(60) into PAz influenced the optical and structural properties considerably. In situ FTIR-ATR is also an extremely useful method for studying the potential stability of an IL during electrochemical cycling. We showed that cathodic decomposition of N,N-butyl-methyl-pyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ([BMP][Tf(2)N]) occurs at less negative potentials than those determined electrochemically.     

Gas-phase observation of multiply charged C60 anions

Gas-phase observation of C60(1-), C60(3-), and C60(4-) anions generated at platinum and gold electrodes and detected by electrochemical/electrospray mass spectrometry is reported. The anions were electrochemically generated from solutions of C60 dissolved in toluene/acetonitrile as well as from reduction of C60 films on gold electrode surfaces. The gas-phase observation of C60(3-) and C60(4-), despite the fact that they have negative electron affinities, is a result of a Coulombic barrier to electron loss. The fact that C60(2-) was not detected in these experiments is ascribed to its limited solubility under the reaction conditions. These studies, which demonstrate the gas-phase kinetic stability of C60(3-) and C60(4-), illustrate the promise of electrochemical/electrospray mass spectrometry for the study of metastable anions.     

AgI-Ag2O-V2O5 glasses as ion-to-electron transducers for the construction of all-solid-state microelectrodes

A method for the fabrication of ion-selective all-solid-state microelectrodes is presented. The ion-to-electron transduction process takes place into the transducer material. In this approach, AgI-Ag₂O-V₂O₅ glasses, which exhibit ionic and electrical conductivity are applied as ion-to-electron transducers of polymeric membrane microelectrodes. All-solid-state electrodes based on potassium-sensitive poly(vinyl chloride) membranes, deposited directly on the surface of glass composites, exhibited theoretical responses. Their selectivity and durability were comparable to planar microelectrodes containing an internal electrolyte immobilized in the intermediate hydrogel layer. The only disadvantage of the proposed structures was their limited reproducibility. Moreover, it was found that the unmodified AgI-Ag₂O-V₂O₅ glasses can be applied as ion-sensitive membrane of solid-state microelectrodes for the determination of Ag⁺ and I⁻ ions.     

A Solid-State Reference Electrode Based on a Self-Referencing Pulstrode

The design of solid-state reference electrodes without a liquid junction is important to allow miniature and cost-effective electrochemical sensors. To address this, a pulse control is proposed using an Ag/AgI element as reliable solid-state reference electrode. It involves the local release of iodide by a cathodic current that is immediately followed by an electromotive force (EMF) measurement that serves as the reference potential. The recapture of iodide ions is achieved by potentiostatic control. This results in intermittent potential values that are reproducible to less than one millivolt (SD=0.27 mV, n=50). The ionic strength is shown to influence the activity coefficient of released iodide in accordance with the extended Debye–Hückel equation, resulting in a predictable change of the potential reading. The principle is applied to potentiometric potassium detection with a valinomycin-based ion-selective electrode (ISE), demonstrating a completely solid-state sensor configuration.     

A corona discharge initiated electrochemical electrospray ionization technique

We report here the development of a corona discharge (CD) initiated electrochemical (EC) electrospray ionization (ESI) technique using a standard electrospray ion source. This is a new ionization technique distinct from ESI, electrochemistry inherent to ESI, APCI, and techniques using hydroxyl radicals produced under atmospheric pressure conditions. By maximizing the observable CD at the tip of a stainless steel ESI capillary, efficient electrochemical oxidation of electrochemically active compounds is observed. For electrochemical oxidation to be observed, the ionization potential of the analyte must be lower than Fe. Ferrocene labeled compounds were chosen as the electrochemically active moiety. The electrochemical cell in the ESI source was robust, and generated ions with selectivity according to the ionization potential of the analytes and up to zeptomolar sensitivity. Our results indicate that CD initiated electrochemical ionization has the potential to become a powerful technique to increase the dynamic range, sensitivity, and selectivity of ESI experiments.     

Potassium Ion-selective Electrode with a Sensitive Ion-to-Electron Transducer Composed of Porous Laser-induced Graphene and MoS2 Fabricated by One-step Direct Laser Writing

In this study, an ion-selective electrode with a sensitive ion-to-electron transducer composed of porous laser-induced graphene (LIG) and MoS₂ (LIG-MoS₂/ISE) was fabricated to measure the potassium ion concentration in a greenhouse nutrient solution for soilless culture. Additionally, a more effective and low-cost method was proposed for the large-batch production and manufacture of potassium ion-selective electrodes (K⁺-ISEs) using the direct laser writing technique, which differs considerably from existing methods. Moreover, the sensing mechanism of the proposed LIG-MoS₂/ISE for potassium ion detection was investigated. The morphology and physical properties of the LIG-MoS₂/SC-K⁺-ISEs were studied by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Raman spectroscopy and energy-dispersive spectroscopy. Potentiometric measurements, chronopotentiometry, potentiometric water layer tests, cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) were used to evaluate the analytical performance of the newly developed K⁺-ISEs. A Nernstian slope of 30.1 mV/decade for the activity of potassium ions in a concentration range from 10⁻⁷ to 10⁻² M was determined. The EIS and chronopotentiometry results revealed that the LIG-MoS₂/SC-K⁺-ISE had a larger resistance and double-layer capacitance than the LIG/SC-K⁺-ISE. The ion-selective membrane (ISM) and solid-contact layer did not have any water film between them, according to the potentiometric water layer test. The results proved that the LIG-MoS₂ nanocomposite could possibly be used as a sensitive ion-to-electron transducer to fabricate K⁺-ISEs. The K⁺-ISE fabrication method using the direct laser writing technique had a higher efficiency, enabling its broad application prospects in agriculture.     

A small angle neutron scattering and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy study of the nanostructure of the iron chalcogenide glass ion-selective electrode

This paper presents a preliminary structural and interfacial study of the iron chalcogenide glass [i.e., Fe_x(Ge₂₈Sb₁₂Se₆₀)_100−x] ion-selective electrode (ISE) using small angle neutron scattering (SANS) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). SANS detected variations in the neutron scattering as a function of iron content in the chalcogenide glass. Furthermore, a change in the chalcogenide glass structure was observed at elevated iron dopant levels. Conversely, EIS was used to show that the iron chalcogenide membrane comprises various time constants, and the interfacial charge transfer reaction depends on the membrane iron content. Equivalent circuit modeling revealed that the charge transfer resistance decreases at elevated iron levels, and this may be related to the presence of iron defects in the glass. It is proposed that the iron chalcogenide membrane comprises an iron nanostructural network embedded in the amorphous matrix, and this directly influences the electrical conductivity and concomitant electrochemical reactivity of the glass.     

Fabrication and electrochemical instrumentation of redox‐active nanofiber mat for polyaniline incorporated with poly(imide sulfonate)

In this study, we demonstrate the fabrication of an electrochemically active nanofiber mat that is a composite of high‐performance poly(imide sulfonate) (PIS) and polyaniline (PANI). First, a nonconductive nanofiber mat comprising nanofibers having diameters of ca. 300 nm was fabricated by the electrospinning of ionomeric PIS in N,N‐dimethylformamide (DMF). Then, the nanofibers were modified using PANI, which was synthesized by the oxidative polymerization of aniline, yielding an electrochemically active nanofiber mat having a diameter of ca. 350 nm. It was confirmed that PANI was successfully incorporated onto the PIS nanofiber mats by X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Subsequently, we conducted electrochemical measurements of the PANI‐modified nanofiber mats using a tailor‐made attachment in which the working electrode gently comes in contact with the nanofiber mat surface. This attachment was observed to be widely useful in the cyclic voltammetry measurements related to redox‐active nanofibers. These observations are expected to contribute to the advancements in application development of the electrochemically active nanofiber mats.     

Continuous flow analysis of iron in zinc electrowinning electrolyte using an iron chalcogenide glass ion-selective electrode Part I. Synthetic media

It is shown that the iron(III) chalcogenide glass membrane ion-selective electrode (ISE) can be calibrated in continuous flow analysis (CFA) using acidified iron(III) nitrate standards, yielding a 60+/-3 mV per decade change in activity of Fe(3+) response in the range 10(-7)-10(-2) M total iron(III). Extended ageing of the iron(III) ISE in 2 M zinc(II) sulphate did not alter the potentiometric response characteristics of the electrode. Furthermore, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy in the presence and absence of zinc(II) sulphate failed to detect a zinc(II) interference on the iron(III) ISE. CFA/ISE determined activities of Fe(3+) in synthetic zinc electrolyte containing 2x10(-3)-2x10(-1) M total iron(III) yielded results falling within +/-0.2logaFe(3+) unit of the corresponding iron speciation data calculated using the minteqa2 program.     

Pt nanodendrites with (111) crystalline facet as an efficient,stable and pH-universal catalyst for electrochemical hydrogen production

High-performance nanomaterial catalysts for hydrogen evolution reaction via electrochemical water splitting are significant to the development of hydrogen energy. In this work, we report a robust and highly active catalyst fabricated through direct electrochemical deposition of Pt nanodendrites at the surface of activated carbon (Pt NDs). Owing to the large electrochemically active area and the exposed (111) facet of Pt, Pt NDs exhibits outstanding activity towards hydrogen evolution reaction with a low requiring overpotential of 0.027 V at 10 mA/cm² and Tafel slope of ≈ 22 mV/dec in acidic media. In addition, the hydrogen yield of Pt NDs is 30%–45% larger than that of commercial Pt/C at the same Pt loadings. Moreover, Pt NDs exhibits excellent long-term durability whose hydrogen production efficiency remains unchanged after six-hour hydrogen production, while the efficiency of commercial Pt/C catalyst decayed 9% under the same circumstance. Considering the superiority of catalytic activity and stability, this Pt NDs present great potentiality towards practical hydrogen production application.     

在氢气氧化反应中具有高催化活性的Pt修饰的Ni/C纳米催化剂

随着能源需求的进一步增多和化石能源的大幅度减少,新型环境友好型能源成为近十年许多科研工作者的着力点.其中,燃料电池作为一种高效率、高能量密度、环境友好型能源引起了人们的关注.氢氧燃料电池研究最早、应用最早,具有得天独厚的优势.此外,由于近些年CO2的大量排放,造成了严重的温室效应,其处理也是一个严峻的课题.谢和平课题组提出的CO2矿化发电,不仅可以处理CO2,也可以作为新型能源应用,前景广阔.而不论是氢氧燃料电池还是CO2矿化电池,其阳极反应均为氢气氧化反应(HOR).Pt作为目前仍无法取代的HOR反应催化剂,不仅全球储量有限且价格昂贵,所以,寻找一种价格低廉催化性能好的催化剂成为这些新能源进一步应用的重要课题之一.对此人们进行了大量探索,主要包括尝试不同的载体、改变金属颗粒尺寸形貌等.其中,伽伐尼置换法对于制备纳米核壳结构催化剂以及降低金属颗粒尺寸、增加比表面积均有很大帮助.基于此,本文采用浸渍法和伽伐尼置换法制备了用Pt修饰Ni/C的纳米催化剂,使得纳米级活性金属均匀分散在载体上,加之双金属效应,相对于纯Pt/C催化剂,催化能力提高.浸渍法制得Ni/C前驱体,再将其置于纯乙醇中,用H2PtCl6作为Pt源置换部分Ni,得到Pt修饰的Ni/C催化剂.XRD射线衍射测试结果表明,一般的PtNi合金由于晶格相互影响,只会出现Pt的偏移衍射峰,而该催化剂均出现明显的PtNi两种元素的衍射峰,PtNi晶格互相没有影响.循环伏安法测试结果表明,在Pt-Ni/C系列催化剂中,Pt和Ni含量不同,其电化学活性面积(ECSA)各不相同.在金属总含量一致的前提下,随着Pt含量的增加,催化剂ECSA先增加后减小,最大值为66.90 m2/g,是市售Pt/C(54.12 m2/g)的1.24倍.Tafel测试HOR/HER反应交换电流密度的结果与ECSA结果一致,而Pt-Ni/C催化剂的交换电流密度最高可达485.45 A/g,是市售Pt/C(301.91 A/g)的1.6倍.对性能较好的Pt-Ni/C催化剂进行了表征,X射线光电子能谱结果发现,该催化剂载体上只有少部分Ni的氧化物裸露在表面,大部分为Pt.而透射电镜结果表明,该催化剂纳米级活性金属颗粒尺寸一致,且均匀地分散在载体表面.综合催化剂表征和电化学性能测试结果可知,使用伽伐尼置换法得到的Pt修饰的Ni/C催化剂分散均匀、颗粒尺寸小,且由于Pt作为主要催化活性金属分散于催化剂表面,而Ni作为辅助金属并不直接参与HOR反应,使得该催化剂具有较高的电化学活性.在Pt含量较少时,由于有很多Ni在催化剂表面,且催化层厚度较大,故催化活性一般.随着Pt含量的增加和Ni含量的减少,当催化剂表面只有很少Ni及相关化合物时,由于Pt比表面积大,故活性最高.当Pt含量继续增加时,Pt在Ni表面厚度增加,很多Pt被包裹,故催化活性再次降低.     

A beta microirradiator

Fabrication of a micro-irradiator probe of 10 μm diameter active area is described. As the β-source, tritiated propionate ions were used. They were electrochemically incorporated into polyaniline layers deposited on platinum disk microelectrodes. The activity of the probes was verified by liquid scintillation counting and by direct imaging of emitted electrons. The simple electrochemical fabrication procedure demonstrates the possibility of preparing micro-irradiatiators (μ-irradiator) with different emitters. These microirradiators are new tools that can safely deliver precise doses of radiation to a microscopic area. As such, they should find application in radiobiology, health physics, materials science and solid-state electronics.     

Magnetically-induced solid-state electrochemical detection of DNA hybridization

A magnetic triggering of a solid-state electrical transduction of DNA hybridization is described. Positioning of an external magnet below the thick-film electrode attracts the DNA/particle network and enables the solid-state electrochemical stripping detection of the silver tracer. TEM imaging indicates that the hybridization event results in a three-dimensional aggregate structure in which duplex segments link the metal nanoparticles and magnetic spheres, and that most of this assembly is covered with the silver precipitate. This leads to a direct contact of the metal tag with the surface (in connection to the magnetic collection) and enables the solid-state electrochemical transduction (without prior dissolution and subsequent electrodeposition of the metal), using oxidative dissolution of the silver tracer. No such aggregates (and hence magnetic "collection") are observed in the presence of noncomplementary DNA, that is, without the linking hybrid. The new method couples high sensitivity of silver-amplified assays with effective discrimination against excess of closely related nucleotide sequences (including single-base imperfections). Such direct electrical detection of DNA/metal-particle assemblies can bring new capabilities to the detection of DNA hybridization, and could be applied to other bioaffinity assays.     

Electrochemically Active Cross‐Linking Reaction for Fluorescent Labeling of Aliphatic Alkenes

Although cross‐linking reactions serve as a valuable tool for the integration of two or more functionalities or properties, the application of electrochemical synthesis to cross‐linking reactions is restricted due to the difficulty of mass transfer. Thus, the primary purpose of this research is to explore electrochemical cross‐linking systems to construct a fluorescent probe, triggered by the formation of a covalent linkage. The second purpose is to apply the probe to insoluble targets. Towards these goals, a combination of electrochemically active phenol derivatives and aliphatic alkenes were employed to form polycyclic compounds. Several of the dihydrobenzofuran derivatives formed through [3+2] cyclization reactions exhibited fluorescence. Furthermore, this approach allowed the effective modification of alkene‐modified silica gel with electrochemically active species, which enables the construction of fluorescent probes that are triggered by C? C bond formation.