Remote electronic acquisition of soil cone index measurement

The cone penetrometer is widely used in tillage and off-road mobility research as an indicator of soil strength and density characteristics. Light-weight, manually operated units are especially useful in recording cone index determinations at remote field locations. Such units permit a single operator to measure and record penetration force vs depth in graphic form. However, the interpretation and analysis of such data has remained a tedious manual operation which has limited the number of determinations which are practical for a given field experiment. The system described in this paper allows one person to determine and electronically record penetration force vs depth relationships using a standard cone penetrometer (ASAE S313.1, 1979). A CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) microprocessor is utilized to sample and digitize analog signals and to record them on a magnetic tape cassette. An identifying code can be associated with each measurement and the microprocessor is subsequently utilized in interpreting cassette-stored data and transmitting it to a remote computer terminal or minicomputer for processing and analysis. Thus, this relatively low-cost system significantly enhances manual acquisition and interpretation of cone penetrometer measurements.     

Cone penetration resistance equation as a function of the clay ratio, soil moisture content and specific weight

The cone penetrometer is a simple versatile device which is widely used to monitor the strength of a soil in terms of its resistance to the penetration of a standard cone. The soil penetration resistance is a function of soil moisture content, soil specific weight and soil type. The soil type is characterised by means of a clay ratio which is the ratio of the clay content of the soil to the content of silt and sand.Based on the classical bearing capacity theories for strip foundations, a general cone penetration resistance equation is developed to represent the variability of cohesion and friction angle by means of soil type and moisture content. The empirical relationship is shown to give an accurate prediction of the cone penetration resistance for a wide range of soils from a loamy sand to a heavy clay (clay ratios 0.10–1.60) and over a wide spectrum of soil moisture contents from 10 to 65% w/w.     

运用轻便触探和静载荷试验研究黄土的湿陷性(英文)

黄土在应力作用下迂水时力学强度迅速下降 ,产生大范围的快速沉陷。这就是黄土的湿陷性 ,是黄土的诸多特性之一。鉴于对黄土湿陷性以往用各种实验室试验指标进行评价 ,这里提出运用动力触探和静载荷试验进行黄土湿陷性原位评价的一种简便的新方法。该方法的试验程序是 ,先用轻便可变动能触探仪在天然状态和饱水状态下进行触探试验 ,而后在触探孔完成静载荷压缩性试验。运用中国黄土高原黄土原位动力触探和静载荷试验测得的资料 ,详细分析了天然状态的黄土对探头阻力 qdnat,饱水状态的黄土对探头阻力 qdsat,实验室测得的湿陷性指数δs压缩曲线参数 (即触探极限压力 ppf,触探蠕变压力ppl 和触探载荷模量Epn)的关系。结果证明所提出的方法适用于原位判定黄土的湿陷性。     

A static cone penetrometer for ocean sediments: T.J. Hirst, A.F. Richards and A.L. InderbitzenASTM Spec. Techn. Publ. No. STP 501, 69–80 (1972)

A static cone penetrometer for deep ocean exploration has been developed and successfully tested in soft sea floor sediments at an ocean depth in excess of 1200 m. The penetration resistance of a standard 60-deg cone is detected by appropriately insulated strain gauges whose output may be monitored remotely from the sensing unit. Initial deployment of the device was aboard the submersible Deep Quest in the San Diego Trough off the coast of southern California. Resistances as low as 7 N (1·6 lb) were measured near the surface of the sediment, generally increasing with depth. At the maximum depth of penetration of 1.1 m (restricted by the limited negative buoyancy of the submersible) tip resistance reached 80 N (18 lb). By means of a conventional bearing capacity analysis, the cone resistance was converted to in situ strength and compared to vane shear measurements taken in the immediate vicinity of the penetration tests. Reasonable agreement between vane shear and penetration strengths were obtained for an assumed bearing capacity factor N_c = 9.     

An overview of methods to convert cone index to bevameter parameters

This paper reviews experimental methods for the conversion of cone index measurements to bevameter parameters in support of vehicle soil/tire/track interactions for two general soil types, sand and lean clay. The accurate prediction of traction, motion resistance, and sinkage of tire/tracks off-road requires estimates of soil strength. Equipment used in the measurement of soil strength to support predictions of off-road mobility include the bevameter and the cone penetrometer. The portability of the cone penetrometer and rapid estimates of spatial/temporal variability in all terrain conditions make it an invaluable tool. The bevameter, a less portable tool, is used for the mechanical analysis of soils. The bevameter measures parameters defining soil strength in terms of cohesive modulus of soil deformation (k_c), frictional modulus of soil deformation (k_φ), exponent of soil sinkage (n), cohesion (c), angle of internal friction (φ), and the plate pressure at 1 in. (2.54 cm) of penetration (K) (Bekker, 1969). The field of terramechanics would greatly benefit from having the ability to convert cone penetrometer data in areas where bevameter parameters are difficult to collect. That ability to convert from cone index to bevameter parameters could be used for the large sets of existing cone index data to support determination of traction and motion resistance. This paper examines those methods for converting cone index to bevameter plate penetration parameters k_c, k_φ, and n.     

FFP在黏土中贯入过程的CFD模拟

圆锥静力触探法(Cone penetration test, CPT)广泛应用于土的抗剪强度测试中。在此基础上发展的自由落体式贯入仪(Free fall penetrometer, FFP),依靠自由下落获得的动能和自身重力势能贯入土中,不需要借助外部加载装置,提高其使用的便捷性。但在动力贯入过程中FFP与土的相互作用更为复杂,涉及到土体的率效应和拖曳阻力等的影响。因此,对FFP各项受力和相关参数的准确分析有助于提高其实用性以及测量的准确性。作者采用基于计算流体动力学(computational fluid dynamics, CFD)的分析软件ANSYS CFX 17.0模拟FFP在均质黏土中的贯入过程,借助动网格的大变形分析方法来模拟FFP贯入过程中的运动边界问题。提出了薄层单元法模拟FFP与土体的界面摩擦接触行为。在CFD模拟中,土体材料采用非牛顿流体来模拟,其剪切强度受土体切应变率的影响(即土体的率效应)。通过模拟贯入仪在黏土中以不同的速度贯入的过程,研究FFP的端部阻力和侧壁阻力与贯入速率、土体强度和密度、界面摩擦系数以及率效应参数之间的关系,建立了端部承载力系数、端部和侧壁率效应参数及拖曳系数的表达式,并提出了土体不排水抗剪强度的预测方法,为FFP测试数据的解析提供依据。      

Evaluation of penetrometers for measuring soil strength

Cone index, as determined by a cone penetrometer, is frequently used as a measure of soil strength. The index is a compound parameter involving components of shear, compressive and tensile strength and soil metal friction. In order to assess the effect of soil type and condition on the relative contributions of these components to penetration resistance, the forces required to push blunt and sharp probes into two soils under a range of moisture contents and bulk densities were investigated. The maximum penetration force in homogeneous soil was not uniquely related to dry bulk density or cohesion, but varied with soil moisture content.At high and low moisture contents, the soil tended to interact with the shaft of the penetrometer thus increasing the resistance to penetration. At low moisture content, bodies of compressed soil formed in front of the probe, effectively changing the probe geometry.It was concluded that interpretation of cone index in typical layered field soils is difficult. Even in homogeneous soils, the proportion of shear, compressive and tensile components that the cone index reflects varies with soil condition.     

平头弹丸正撞下钢筋混凝土靶板厚度方向的开裂

主要针对钢筋混凝土靶板在受到平头弹丸撞击下发生的厚度方向开裂的问题进行研究,并提出了一个弹丸低速撞击有限厚度板的二阶段模型。模型中第一阶段为侵彻阶段,弹丸受到混凝土介质的侵彻阻力由静阻力和速度效应引起的动阻力组成;模型中第二阶段为开裂阶段,钢筋混凝土靶板发生动态剪切破坏的最大承载力可以通过静态剪切破坏最大承载力乘以一个动态增强因子得到。该模型可以用来预测钢筋混凝土靶板发生厚度方向开裂破坏的临界能量。模型预测与实验结果吻合较好。     

Modeling and testing of snow penetration

Penetration by a cone into snow is commonly used to characterize snow properties. However, the effects of the diameter and half-angle of the cone on the mechanical properties of snow have not been systematically studied. In addition, no estimation of material parameters in a physically-based model has been made such that the results from penetration provide only an index of snow properties. In this paper, modeling and experimental methods are used to examine the effects of cone geometry on the maximum penetration force and associated hardness, with penetrometers ranging from 2.5 to 4 mm in diameter, 15° to 45° in cone half-angle, and testing both fine-grained and coarse-grained snows. The material point method, in conjunction with the Drucker–Prager cap plasticity model, was used to obtain the theoretical penetration force-distance relationship. Global sensitivity studies were conducted that indicate that the cohesion accounts for 86% of the penetration force, followed distantly by friction angle which accounts for 27%. A general trend, for the simulation results was established: for a given half-angle, the penetration force increases with the increase of diameter which holds for most of the test data as well; for a given diameter, the penetration force decreases with the increase of half-angle, which holds for some of the test data. In addition, for a given half-angle, the hardness decreases with the increase of diameter; for a given diameter, the hardness decreases with the increase of half-angle. To take into consideration the uncertainty of test data, a simple interval-based metric was used to compare test data with simulation results; the comparison was satisfactory. The material parameters from the simulations can thus be considered as calibrated ones for the snow studied.     

Determination of the soil pressure distribution around a cone penetrometer

The objective of this paper was to investigate the pressure distribution around a cone penetrometer using a pressure sensing mat under laboratory conditions. The investigation was conducted under (1) constrained conditions using cylindrical split pipe molds and (2) unconstrained conditions using a soil box. These tests were conducted in Capay clay and Yolo loam soil containing two different moisture conditions and two compaction levels.In the constrained tests, a maximum radial pressure of 111 kPa was observed in the Capay clay soil with 3.4–4.3% d.b. moisture content and three blows of compaction (cone index value of 2040 kPa) when using the 41 mm diameter split pipe mold. These pressure levels decreased to 82 and 22 kPa, respectively, when 65 and 88 mm diameter molds were used. In both the Capay clay and Yolo loam tests, the average radial pressure and average cone index values showed similar trends.In the unconstrained tests, a maximum pressure of 9.0 kPa was observed in the Capay clay with 4.5% d.b. moisture content and three blows of compaction (cone index value of 550 kPa) at a horizontal distance of 25.4 mm from the vertical axis of the cone penetrometer and minimum pressure levels in the range of 0.2–0.3 kPa when the horizontal distance of the penetrometer was in the range of 56.8–66 mm. The pressure levels are much smaller than the ones obtained in the constrained tests and may suggest that the pressure distribution under field conditions is small at a distance of 25.4 mm or higher from the tip of the cone.The experimental data were statistically analyzed to identify significant factors. The results of the analysis for the constrained test indicated that the mold diameter and number of blows significantly increased the pressure readings within the soil mass. Increasing the mold diameter led to a decrease in the average radial pressure and increasing the number of blows contributed to an increase in the average radial pressure. In the unconstrained test, the average radial pressure distribution at a given point were significantly influenced by the horizontal distance of the point from the vertical axis passing through the center of the penetrometer shaft, soil type, and soil moisture content. Higher pressure values were obtained in the Capay clay tests compared to the Yolo loam tests. In all cases, the pressure levels were greater for the drier soil than for the moist soil.     

静力触探锥头阻力的近似理论与实验研究进展

锥头阻力在静力触探试验中扮演着十分重要的角色.从不同角度,对触探中锥头阻力的研究进行简要阐述,对承载力理论、空洞膨胀理论、应变路径法及运动点位错法等几种理论分析方法进行了回顾.另外,对数值分析和实验研究的进展情况进行了叙述.并对各种方法的适用性进行了比较.承载力理论虽然简单,但忽略了土的压缩性和探杆周围初始应力的增加,所以不能精确地模拟锥头的深层贯入.空洞膨胀理论提供了一个分析锥头阻力的简单而较精确的方法,它考虑了土的压缩性(或膨胀性)和锥头贯入过程中锥杆周围应力增加的影响.但这种方法是将锥头贯入与空洞膨胀之间做了一个等效模拟,所以不同的模拟方法,得到的结果差别较大.应变路径法能够有效解决饱和粘土中的不排水贯入,但不适用于砂土.运动点位错法因为考虑了部分排水,所以能较好地预测固结系数,但采用了线弹性分析,故位错法在其他方面的应用还需要大量的试验验证.有限元法在处理锥头贯入这类慢侵彻问题时缺乏一种很好的处理技术,导致它在进行破坏荷载计算时有显著的误差和数值计算困难.标定槽试验将在验证和建立锥头阻力与土的性能关系方面继续起到一个重要作用,但其结果需经过校正后才可应用到现场.最后对该领域的研究趋势进行了讨论.      

The determination of plough draught—Part II the measurement and prediction of plough draught for two mouldboard shapes in three soil series

The draught of a 3-furrow reversible plough fitted with two types of bodies was measured at five separate test sites. Each site was ploughed on four different days to provide a range of soil moisture contents. The plough was operated at three different speeds in sequence for each type of body. The horizontal and vertical forces transmitted to the tractor were measured on a three-point linkage dynamometer. Tachogenerators monitored tractor wheel speed and fifth wheel ground speed. Cone index and soil specific weight were recorded at 30 mm intervals throughout the top-soil profile. Cone index at median plough depth was found to be a satisfactory measure of soil strength for the prediction of plough draught. Characterising specific plough draught by soil cone index, specific weight, moisture content, plough mouldboard tail angle and ploughing speed provided predicted values in closer agreement with measured draught compared with earlier equations. The sensitivity of cone index to soil moisture content supports the use of the cone penetrometer as a practical monitor of soil conditions in the field and as a management tool for judging the opportune times for agricultural tillage operations.     

The determination of plough draught—Part I. prediction from soil and meteorological data with cone index as the soil strength parameter

Using cone index as an indication of soil strength, empirical equations are developed in accordance with soil mechanics theory to relate soil moisture content to plough draught. The plough draught equation comprises a quasi-static component dependent on cone index and a dynamic component which is a function of the soil specific weight, plough speed and mouldbard tail angle. It is further argued that the cohesive and frictional components of the cone penetration resistance can be predicted by means of a simple equation comprising a reciprocal function of the square of the soil moisture content and a linear function of the soil specific weight. The cone index equation explained 98% of the experimental data for threthree soils over a wide range of moisture contents. These empirical equations, together with a soil moisture model, provide a method of predicting plough draught directly from soil and meteorological data.     

The measurement of the yield stress of liquids

An analysis has been made of different methods of measuring the yield stress of liquids. In the experimental program, a comparison is made of measurements of the yield stress using an Instron 3250 Rheometer in several geometries (cone-plate, parallel plate and eccentric disk) in shear flow and stress relaxation, a laboratory vane and a cone penetrometer. Good agreement has been obtained between the shear flow data and the laboratory vane, while stress relaxation appears to underestimate the yield stress.     

滑轨导向式静/动态双轴拉伸实验技术

基于液压伺服高速加载系统,发展了一种材料双轴拉伸力学性能测试技术。利用锥面接触导向驱动方法,把加载锤竖直方向的驱动力转化为水平方向的双轴驱动力,从而实现对十字形试样平面双轴加载。借助有限元数值模拟手段优化了锥面接触角和十字形试样尺寸。当接触锥角为45°时,既有较好的水平驱动转化效率,同时又保持较小的接触力,确保水平驱动加载各组件在弹性变形范围内,可多次重复使用。确定了加载臂狭缝个数、狭缝与减薄区边缘长度和标距段厚度等试样设计关键参数,在十字形试样测试标距段内实现了均匀变形。设计了测力夹持一体化导杆和非接触光学全场应变测试系统,准确获得了试样的应力和应变。利用此平面双轴拉伸加载装置,开展2024-T351铝合金板单轴拉伸实验和激光探测同步性验证实验,验证装置设计的可行性;开展铝合金板材在不同加载速率下的双轴拉伸实验,得到在双轴加载下铝合金板材应力应变曲线,并与单轴加载下实验结果进行了对比分析。     

The effect of dynamic impact and water potential on some surface soil properties

A direct shear test with a superimposed impact was used to simulate the action of a track on the soil surface and to study the effect on soil surface properties. Results showed that impact increased bulk density, reduced saturated hydraulic conductivity and decreased cone penetrometer resistance. An impact plus shear treatment reduced the residual shear strength to approximately 60 kPa compared with 85 kPa for a shear only treatment. Water tension also greatly influenced the changes measured with the order of greatest change being −5>−10>−60>t-100>−300 kPa. The results are discussed with respect to soil trafficability and soil structural change with vehicle passage.     

Non-linear finite element analysis of cone penetration in layered sandy loam soil – Considering precompression stress state

Axisymmetric finite element (FE) method was developed to simulate cone penetration process in layered granular soil. The FE was modeled using ABAQUS/Explicit, a commercially available package. Soil was considered as a non-linear elastic plastic material which was modeled using variable elastic parameters of Young’s Modulus and Poisson’s ratio and Drucker–Prager criterion with yield stress dependent material hardening property. The material hardening parameters of the model were estimated from the USDA-ARS National Soil Dynamics Laboratory – Auburn University (NSDL-AU) soil compaction model. The stress–strain relationship in the NSDLAU compaction model was modified to account for the different soil moisture conditions and the influence of precompression stress states of the soil layers. A surface contact pair (‘slave-master’) algorithm in ABAQUS/Explicit was used to simulate the insertion of a rigid cone (RAX2 ABAQUS element) into deformable and layered soil medium (CAX4R ABAQUS element). The FE formulation was verified using cone penetration data collected on a soil chamber of Norfolk sandy loam soil which was prepared in two compaction treatments that varied in bulk density in the hardpan layer of (1) 1.64 Mg m⁻³ and (2) 1.71 Mg m⁻³. The FE model successfully simulated the trend of cone penetration in layered soils indicating the location of the sub-soil compacted (hardpan) layer and peak cone penetration resistance. Modification of the NSDL-AU model to account for the actual soil moisture content and inclusion of the influence of precompression stress into the strain behavior of the NSDL-AU model improved the performance of FE in predicting the peak cone penetration resistance. Modification of the NSDL-AU model resulted in an improvement of about 42% in the finite element-predicted soil cone penetration forces compared with the FE results that used the NSDL-AU ‘virgin’ model.     

Cone resistance in sand by incremental method

A new method has been developed for the determination of cone resistance under drained conditions. Numerical methods are used for the solution of the differential equations of plasticity theory for soils and for the determination of the stress states in the soil produced by the penetration of the cone. It is assumed that the stresses produced by the penetration of the cone remain ‘locked in’ the soil and constitute boundary conditions for further penetration. The computation starts with the cone base at the surface and is continued by successively incrementing the depth by a small amount. Charts are given for the computation of cone resistance in sands for various friction angles. The importance of the effect of the shear stresses generated at the surface of the cone and characterized by the interface friction angle, δ, is discussed in detail.     

药型罩锥角对射孔枪射流冲击过程的影响

采用ALE方法对射孔弹射流形成的过程及聚能射流对混凝土靶板的侵彻进行了数值模拟,对比了锥形药型罩的不同锥角对聚能射流形成和侵彻的影响.研究结果表明药型罩的锥角大小对聚能射流的速度和形状、射流头部和杵体的质量、侵彻的宽度和深度有着明显显著的影响.小锥角射流头部比重较小且杵体速度未达到侵彻临界值而无法起到很好的侵彻效果,大...     

聚能装药对混凝土靶板的侵彻研究

系统开展了不同药型罩材料、不同锥角、不同壁厚的聚能装药在不同炸高下侵彻混凝土试验, 研究了罩材料、锥角、壁厚、炸高等结构参数对漏斗坑直径、侵彻孔洞直径、漏斗坑深度以及侵彻深度等参数的影响规律;应用空腔膨胀理论计算了混凝土靶体阻力, 采用改进的伯努利方程和两阶段空腔膨胀理论获得了混凝土靶板在侵彻体作用下的侵彻深度和孔洞直径, 理论结果与试验结果基本吻合;基于AUTODYN 软件平台, 采用与试验一致的聚能装药结构, 开展了57 种工况下侵彻体成形过程的数值模拟研究, 并对其中典型工况的侵彻混凝土过程进行了数值模拟, 计算所得孔洞直径和侵彻深度与试验结果吻合较好, 在此基础上深入探讨了聚能装药作用下混凝土漏斗坑的形成机理, 分析表明, 铝药型罩的开坑机理不同于钢和铜药型罩.