Optical measurement of acoustic pressure amplitudes-at the sensitivity limits of Rayleigh scattering

Rayleigh scattering is a measurement technique applicable for the determination of density distributions in various technical or natural flows. The current sensitivity limits of the Rayleigh scattering technique were investigated experimentally. It is shown that it is possible to measure density oscillations caused by acoustic pressure oscillations noninvasively and directly. Acoustical standing waves in a rectangular duct were investigated using Rayleigh scattering and compared to microphone measurements. The comparison showed a sensitivity of the Rayleigh scattering technique of 75 Pa (7·10(-4) kg/m(3)) and a precision of 14 Pa (1·10(-4) kg/m(3)). Therefore, it was also shown that Rayleigh scattering is applicable for acoustic measurements.     

A comparison measurement of nonlinear ultrasonic waves in tubes by a microphone and by an optical interferometric probe

This paper deals with the analysis of ultrasonic fields inside waveguides generated by ultrasonic waves of high amplitude. These waves behave nonlinearly, so it is not possible to use standard linear equations to describe their behaviour. Therefore, we started with an experimental determination of the acoustic pressure of air in glass tubes. We chose two methods of measurement--by a microphone and by an optical interferometric probe. The conventional method by a microphone creates numerous problems, which can be avoided by using an optical method, a heterodyne laser interferometer.     

Modelling the pressure field in the vicinity of a microphone membrane using PIV

A new approach for estimating the acoustic pressure in the near field of a microphone based on non-intrusive direct measurement of acoustic particle velocity is proposed.This method enables the estimation of the acoustic pressure inside a domain located in front of the microphone membrane. The acoustic pressure is calculated using the acoustic particle velocity on the frontiers of this domain and a physical model based on the Green function of the system.Results are obtained using the acoustic velocity measured with Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) in front of a microphone excited with a plane wave inside a rectangular waveguide. They show that the diffraction of the plane wave by the microphone leads to an increase of the acoustic pressure on the microphone edge in the order of magnitude of 0.1 dB.     

Spatial structure of low-frequency wind noise

The distinguishing spatial properties of low-frequency microphone wind noise (turbulent pressure disturbances) are examined with a planar, 49-element array. Individual, propagating transient pressure disturbances are imaged by wavelet processing to the array data. Within a given frequency range, the wind disturbances are much smaller and less spatially coherent than sound waves. Conventional array processing techniques are particularly sensitive to wind noise when sensor separations are small compared to the acoustic wavelengths of interest.     

Suitability of laser Doppler velocimetry for the calibration of pressure microphones

The details of a new approach for absolute calibration of microphones, based on the direct measurement of acoustic particle velocity using laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV), are presented and discussed. The calibration technique is carried out inside a tube in which plane waves propagate and closed by a rigid termination. The method developed proposes to estimate the acoustic pressure with two velocity measurements and a physical model. Minimum theoretical uncertainties on the estimated pressure and minimum measurable pressure are calculated from the Cramer Rao bounds on the estimated acoustic velocity amplitude and phase. These uncertainties and the minimum measurable pressure help to optimize the experimental set up. Acoustic pressure estimations performed with LDV are compared with acoustic pressures obtained with a reference microphone. Measurements lead to a minimum bias of 0.006 dB and a minimum uncertainty of 0.013 dB on the acoustic pressure estimation for frequencies 1360 Hz and 680 Hz.     

用非饱和三相孔弹模型研究浅层土壤中地震波的传播特性

研究浅层土壤中声波耦合的地震波的传播特性, 用于声波探雷技术的机理分析. 根据浅层土壤具有孔隙度和可压缩性的特点, 利用非饱和三相孔隙介质中的地震波模型, 研究了土壤孔隙度、含水饱和度等参数对地震波传播特性的影响. 计算结果显示: 在给定的参数条件下, 地震波的传播速度和衰减系数均随频率的增加而增加; 纵波的传播速度随孔隙度的增加而减小, 横波的传播速度随孔隙度的增加而增加; 地震波的传播特性随含水饱和度的增加变化比较复杂. 通过对计算结果与已发表实验结果的比较分析, 讨论了解析方法的可行性, 为声-地震耦合机理及其在声波探雷研究中的应用提供了一定的理论基础. 关键词： 声-地震耦合 地震波 孔隙度 声波探雷     

Assessment of acoustic pressure holograms from membrane velocity measurements

The aim of this paper is to demonstrate experimentally the possibility of acquiring acoustic pressure holograms using a light membrane and a scanning laser vibrometer. The velocity of a light membrane placed in an acoustic field can be measured without contact by means of a laser vibrometer. The ideal membrane must be optically reflective, acoustically transparent (having as little mass as possible), impermeable, and mounted without tension. The measured velocity is equal for continuity reasons to the normal acoustic velocity, but differs from the acoustic velocity without the membrane because the membrane is never completely transparent to acoustic waves. The effect of the mass of the membrane can be taken into account to correct this difference. Then, acoustic pressure holograms can be deduced from velocity holograms using the 2D Discrete Fourier Transform. An experimental validation is carried out; acoustic pressures derived from laser measurements are compared with microphone measurements, with a very satisfying match over a wide frequency range.     

Acoustic imaging device with one transducer

This paper presents a low profile imaging device using only one piezoelectric transducer and a microphone. The transducer is glued to an aluminum plate of non-regular geometry that acts as an acoustic cavity. Beam steering is achieved, and the acoustic waves should be focused anywhere in front of the plate. Finally, using a single microphone receiver working in echographic mode, our imaging device is able to locate any object placed in front of it.     

Large signal performance of micromachined silicon condenser microphones

A mathematical model for the open-circuit output voltage of a micromachined silicon condenser microphone with a single deeply corrugated diaphragm as a function of the applied acoustic pressure is presented. The model, basically a sine-series function, can easily yield closed-form expressions for the amplitudes of the output components resulting from a multisinusoidal input acoustic pressure. The special case of an equal-amplitude two-tone acoustic pressure input is considered in detail. The results show that the microphone generates only odd-order harmonic and intermodulation products. The results also show that the amplitudes of these components are strongly dependent on the microphone parameters, the corrugation depth and the ratio between the half-length of the diaphragm and its thickness. Moreover, the results show that the acoustic pressure required to produce a pre-specified output open-circuit voltage is strongly dependent on these parameters.     

Experimental study of propagation of instability waves in a submerged jet under transverse acoustic excitation

An experimental study was conducted on the specific features of instability wave propagation in the mixing layer of a turbulent jet when the jet is excited by an external acoustic wave. We used the technique of conditional phase averaging of data obtained by particle image velocimetry using the reference signal of a microphone placed near the jet. The influence of the excitation frequency on the characteristics of large-scale structures in the mixing layer was investigated. It is shown that the propagation patterns of the instability waves agree well with previously obtained data on the localization of acoustic sources in turbulent jets.     

Development of a multi-microphone calibrator

This paper presents the theory, design, and validation of a microphone calibrator used to simultaneously calibrate the amplitudes of multiple microphones on a single probe. The probe uses four 6 mm diameter electret microphones to acquire the data needed to compute acoustic energy density. This probe has prompted the need for simultaneous, multi-microphone amplitude calibration. The calibration process simultaneously subject each microphone on the probe to the same known acoustic pressure using four equal-length, small-diameter tubes connected to a single excitation source. A reference microphone connected to a fifth tube is used to calibrate the microphones. Test results show that the calibrator can calibrate each probe microphone within ±0.5 dB up to 2 kHz, and within ±1 dB up to 4.9 Hz with a confidence level of 95%.     

Acoustic temperature measurement in a rocket noise field

A 1 μm diameter platinum wire resistance thermometer has been used to measure temperature fluctuations generated during a static GEM-60 rocket motor test. Exact and small-signal relationships between acoustic pressure and acoustic temperature are derived in order to compare the temperature probe output with that of a 3.18 mm diameter condenser microphone. After preliminary plane wave tests yielded good agreement between the transducers within the temperature probe's ～2 kHz bandwidth, comparison between the temperature probe and microphone data during the motor firing show that the ±～3 K acoustic temperature fluctuations are a significant contributor to the total temperature variations.     

A directional acoustic array using silicon micromachined piezoresistive microphones

The need for noise source localization and characterization has driven the development of advanced sound field measurement techniques using microphone arrays. Unfortunately, the cost and complexity of these systems currently limit their widespread use. Directional acoustic arrays are commonly used in wind tunnel studies of aeroacoustic sources and may consist of hundreds of condenser microphones. A microelectromechanical system (MEMS)-based directional acoustic array system is presented to demonstrate key technologies to reduce the cost, increase the mobility, and improve the data processing efficiency versus conventional systems. The system uses 16 hybrid-packaged MEMS silicon piezoresistive microphones that are mounted to a printed circuit board. In addition, a high-speed signal processing system was employed to generate the array response in near real time. Dynamic calibrations of the microphone sensor modules indicate an average sensitivity of 831 microV/Pa with matched magnitude (+/-0.6 dB) and phase (+/-1 degree) responses between devices. The array system was characterized in an anechoic chamber using a monopole source as a function of frequency, sound pressure level, and source location. The performance of the MEMS-based array is comparable to conventional array systems and also benefits from significant cost savings.     

Vertical seismic profiling on the sea shelf

Results of a numerical experiment on vertical seismic profiling of the sea bottom on the shelf are presented. The results are obtained by analyzing the acoustic fields in the shelf area with the use of both hydroacoustic and seismic bottom sources of radiation. The influence of both transmission depth and source type on the efficiency of seismic wave excitation in the bottom is investigated. The formation of the vertical wave hodographs and its dependence on the acoustic parameters and structure of the bottom in the oceanic shelf region is analyzed. A high sensitivity of the vertical wave hodographs to variations in the parameters of the bottom medium is revealed. For the layered bottom model, the possibility of estimating the positions of layer boundaries in depth and the velocities of waves within the layers is demonstrated.     

Noise in miniature microphones

The internal noise spectrum in miniature electret microphones of the type used in the manufacture of hearing aids is measured. An analogous circuit model of the microphone is empirically fit to the measured data and used to determine the important sources of noise within the microphone. The dominant noise source is found to depend on the frequency. Below 40 Hz and above 9 kHz, the dominant source is electrical noise from the amplifier circuit needed to buffer the electrical signal from the microphone diaphragm. Between approximately 40 Hz and 1 kHz, the dominant source is thermal noise originating in the acoustic flow resistance of the small hole pierced in the diaphragm to equalize barometric pressure. Between approximately 1 kHz and 9 kHz, the noise originates in the acoustic flow resistances of sound entering the microphone and propagating to the diaphragm. To further reduce the microphone internal noise in the audio band requires attacking these sources. A prototype microphone having reduced acoustical noise is measured and discussed.     

A time-selective technique for free-field reciprocity calibration of condenser microphones

In normal practice, microphones are calibrated in a closed coupler where the sound pressure is uniformly distributed over the diaphragm. Alternatively, microphones can be placed in a free field, although in that case the distribution of sound pressure over the diaphragm will change as a result of the diffraction of the body of the microphone, and thus, its sensitivity will change. In the two cases, a technique based on the reciprocity theorem can be applied for obtaining the absolute sensitivity either under uniform pressure or free-field conditions. In this paper, signal-processing techniques are considered that improve the accuracy of the free-field calibration method. In particular, a fast Fourier transform (FFT)-based time-selective technique for removing undesired reflections from the walls of the measurement chamber has been developed and applied to the electric transfer impedance function between two microphones. The acoustic centers of the microphones have been determined from the "cleaned" transfer impedance values. Then, the complex free-field sensitivities of the microphones have been calculated. The resulting complex sensitivities and acoustic centers have proved to be in good agreement with previously published data, and this confirms the reliability of the time-selective technique, even in nonanechoic environments. Furthermore, the obtained results give a new reference for further comparisons, because they cover a frequency range with an accuracy that has not been obtained by previously published data.     

Regularization for improving the deconvolution in real-time near-field acoustic holography

Near-field acoustic holography is a measuring process for locating and characterizing stationary sound sources from measurements made by a microphone array in the near-field of the acoustic source plane. A technique called real-time near-field acoustic holography (RT-NAH) has been introduced to extend this method in the case of nonstationary sources. This technique is based on a formulation which describes the propagation of time-dependent sound pressure signals on a forward plane using a convolution product with an impulse response in the time-wavenumber domain. Thus the backward propagation of the pressure field is obtained by deconvolution. Taking the evanescent waves into account in RT-NAH improves the spatial resolution of the solution but makes the deconvolution problem "ill-posed" and often yields inappropriate solutions. The purpose of this paper is to focus on solving this deconvolution problem. Two deconvolution methods are compared: one uses a singular value decomposition and a standard Tikhonov regularization and the other one is based on optimum Wiener filtering. A simulation involving monopoles driven by nonstationary signals demonstrates, by means of objective indicators, the accuracy of the time-dependent reconstructed sound field. The results highlight the advantage of using regularization and particularly in the presence of measurement noise.     

Acoustoseismic wave fields generated by surface seismic vibrators

Results of experimental and theoretical studies of acoustoseismic wave fields generated by surface seismic vibrators are presented. In experiments with high-power seismic vibrators operating in a frequency range of 5–10 Hz, acoustic waves were recorded at distances up to 50 km from the source. The long-range sound propagation from seismic vibration sources was observed in a near-surface waveguide arising due to temperature inversion. The effect of the acoustoseismic induction, i.e., excitation of surface seismic waves by the acoustic wave arriving from the vibrator, was also detected. The results of mathematical modeling of the acoustoseismic field generation by an operating seismic vibrator are presented. They include the modeling of the radiation of a harmonic acoustic wave’s by the vibrator, its trapping by the near-surface waveguide, the long-range low-frequency acoustic wave propagation in the presence of the waveguide, and the induction of a surface seismic wave by the arriving harmonic acoustic wave. It is shown that a seismoacoustic wave propagating at the boundary between the elastic earth and the atmosphere is an analog of the Stonely wave that appears in the presence of a near-surface low-temperature layer in the atmosphere.     

影响"水杯编钟"音调变化的实验研究

利用微型麦克风和基于计算机声卡的虚拟频谱分析仪,实时采集水杯受击时的信号频谱图,通过对频谱图的分析获得水杯受击时的音调.利用Matlab对数据进行拟合得出水杯中不同体积水与受击时音调的关系.同时,研究了不同敲击点对音调的影响.     

The measurement of the free field impulse response of microphones in a laboratory environment

A method is presented of measuring the free field frequency and impulse response of microphones by using a pulse technique in an ordinary laboratory environment. The pressure transient generated by exciting a loudspeaker with a narrow pulse is detected at some point in the loudspeaker's far field by a “reference” microphone whose response is assumed flat over the frequency range of interest. The microphone to be tested is then substituted in exactly the same position and its response to the transient measured. The outputs of the two microphones are accurately sampled and deconvolved by using a discrete Fourier transform technique to give the magnitude and phase parts of the “test” microphone's frequency response, and hence, via the discrete Fourier transform, its response to a delta function of pressure propagating in the free field. The computed impulse responses are presented and the accuracy of the method discussed.To illustrate the use of the method, the free field frequency response and free field correction curves of a one inch instrumentation microphone are measured. The method is then used to measure the pressure which occurs at the centre of the flat end-face of a long a cylinder when excited by an impulse of acoustic pressure propagating in the free field from various angles of incidence.