A multi-objective approach to supply chain visibility and risk

This paper investigates the twin effects of supply chain visibility (SCV) and supply chain risk (SCR) on supply chain performance. Operationally, SCV has been linked to the capability of sharing timely and accurate information on exogenous demand, quantity and location of inventory, transport related cost, and other logistics activities throughout an entire supply chain. Similarly, SCR can be viewed as the likelihood that an adverse event has occurred during a certain epoch within a supply chain and the associated consequences of that event which affects supply chain performance. Given the multi-faceted attributes of the decision making process which involves many stages, objectives, and stakeholders, it beckons research into this aspect of the supply chain to utilize a fuzzy multi-objective decision making approach to model SCV and SCR from an operational perspective. Hence, our model incorporates the objectives of SCV maximization, SCR minimization, and cost minimization under the constraints of budget, customer demand, production capacity, and supply availability. A numerical example is used to demonstrate the applicability of the model. Our results suggest that decision makers tend to mitigate SCR first then enhance SCV.     

信息不对称下多因素波动的应急数量弹性契约

考虑突发事件导致市场需求大幅波动、市场价格随机波动,构建生产成本信息不对称时应急供应链的数量弹性契约模型,寻找最优定价及订货策略;与完全信息情形对比,分析突发事件的信息共享及其对供应链最优决策的影响程度。研究发现,在生产成本信息不对称情形下,突发事件发生时,虽然零售商设计的数量弹性契约可以有效体现真实生产成本,但对供应链协调不起作用。同时,如果市场需求规模缩减,制造商表现出隐藏信息行为,可以促使供应链整体效益增加。最后通过算例验证了这些结论。     

随机需求下物流服务供应链订购策略研究

针对由单个物流服务提供商和集成商组成的物流服务供应链,基于集中化模式、纳什博弈模式和Stackelberg博弈模式三种典型模式,考虑市场需求随机且受服务质量缺陷承诺水平的影响,探讨物流服务供应链的订购与质量缺陷承诺策略问题。通过分析发现:物流服务质量缺陷承诺水平随着市场需求弹性系数的增加而递减,但其受物流服务集成商观测水平的影响却因合作模式不同而变化不一致;集中化模式下的物流服务订购量随着物流服务集成商观测水平或市场需求弹性系数的增大而递减,但在其他两种合作模式下物流服务订购量随着物流服务集成商观测水平或市场需求弹性系数的增加而增加;在三种模式下,物流服务供应链的整体利润随着市场需求弹性系数的增加而递减,但其受物流服务集成商观测水平的影响却因合作模式不同而变化不一致。     

Logistics cost sharing in supply chains involving a third-party logistics provider

In many cases, end customers are sensitive to a product’s logistics service level which is provided by a third-party logistics (3PL) provider, therefore, the continuous improvement of the logistics service is imperative and valuable. However, the problem is that improving the logistics service benefits all of them, but is costly to only the 3PL provider. The 3PL provider is not willing to do this. Sharing the logistics cost is one solution to this problem. This study investigates cost sharing in two kinds of supply chains, i.e., one manufacturer-one 3PL provider-one retailer supply chain and two manufacturers-one 3PL provider-one retailer supply chain. Two types of cost sharing mechanisms, i.e., decentralized cost sharing mechanisms and centralized cost sharing mechanisms, are explored. Decentralized cost sharing mechanisms are proposed as contracts that chain members separately decide their cost sharing portions to optimize their own profits, ignoring the collective impacts of their decisions on the channel as a whole. Centralized cost sharing mechanisms are in the situation that chain members negotiate their cost sharing portions so that their profits are the shares of the entire supply chain’s profit, implying that the supply chain is coordinated perfectly. This study aims to analyse how cost sharing mechanisms affect supply chain performance and under what conditions chain members are willing to engage in cost sharing mechanisms. Conditions necessary for cost sharing mechanisms to achieve win-win outcomes are identified.     

Demand forecast sharing in a dual-channel supply chain

We assess the benefits of sharing demand forecast information in a manufacturer–retailer supply chain, consisting of a traditional retail channel and a direct channel. The demand is a linear function of price with a Gaussian primary demand (i.e., zero-price market potential). Both the manufacturer and the retailer set their price based on their forecast of the primary demand. In this setting, we investigate the value of sharing demand forecasts. We analyze the ‘make-to-order’ scenario, in which prices are set before and production takes place after the primary demand is known, and the ‘make-to-stock’ scenario, in which production takes place and prices are set before the primary demand is known. We also compare the supply chain performance with and without the direct channel under some assumptions (production cost is zero, and each demand function has the same slope of price). We find that the direct channel has a negative impact on the retailer’s performance, and, under some conditions, the manufacturer and the whole supply chain are better off. Our research extends and complements prior research that has investigated only the inventory and replenishment-related benefits of information sharing.     

The impact of forecasting model selection on the value of information sharing in a supply chain

This paper presents a study on the impact of forecasting model selection on the value of information sharing in a supply chain with one capacitated supplier and multiple retailers. Using a computer simulation model, this study examines demand forecasting and inventory replenishment decisions by the retailers, and production decisions by the supplier under different demand patterns and capacity tightness. Analyses of the simulation output indicate that the selection of the forecasting model significantly influences the performance of the supply chain and the value of information sharing. Furthermore, demand patterns faced by retailers and capacity tightness faced by the supplier also significantly influence the value of information sharing. The result also shows that substantial cost savings can be realized through information sharing and thus help to motivate trading partners to share information in the supply chain. The findings can also help supply chain managers select suitable forecasting models to improve supply chain performance.     

基于时间可控和随机损失的生鲜农产品供应链协调

生鲜农产品不仅是易腐的,其寿命还具有随机性,在订货和由产地运往远方销地的过程中,面临随机供给与需求的匹配、变质损失与物流成本的平衡这两重难题。基于现代物流条件下物流时间的可控性,分别建立了分散控制和集中控制供应链的决策模型,分析得到了它们的最优订货量和最优物流时间。在此基础上,设计了一组联合契约,推导出了实现生鲜农产品供应链协调时契约参数取值范围的计算公式。研究结果表明:通过选择合理的契约参数φ,联合契约能够完美协调生鲜农产品供应链、实现供需双方帕累托最优。进一步,对变质率参数和需求价格弹性系数进行了敏感性分析,为生鲜农产品供应链实践提供了一些管理启示。     

Price discount based on early order commitment in a single manufacturer–multiple retailer supply chain

Early order commitment (EOC) is a strategy for supply chain coordination, wherein the retailer commits to purchasing from a manufacturer a fixed order quantity a few periods in advance of the regular delivery lead time. In this paper, we formulate and analyze the EOC strategy for a decentralized, two-level supply chain consisting of a single manufacturer and multiple retailers, who face external demands that follow an autocorrelated AR(1) process over time. We characterize the special structure of the optimal solutions for the retailers’ EOC periods to minimize the total supply chain cost and discuss the impact of demand parameters and cost parameters. We then develop and compare three solution approaches to solving the optimal solution. Using this optimal cost as the benchmark, we investigate the effectiveness of using the wholesale price-discount scheme for the manufacturer to coordinate this decentralized system. We give numerical examples to show the benefits of EOC to the whole supply chain, examine the efficiency of the discount scheme in general situation, and provide the special conditions when the full coordination is achieved.     

Service capacity procurement of logistics service supply chain with demand updating and loss-averse preference

This paper studies the impacts of loss-averse preference on the service capacity procurement decisions with demand updating in a logistics service supply chain, which consists of one logistics service integrator and one functional logistics service provider. It starts from a basic two-stage Stackelberg game model, then, extends to three scenarios where either the integrator or the provider or neither of them has loss-averse preference. The impact of loss-averse preference on the decisions of supply chain members is discussed by comparing the four models. Our results reveal, first, the loss-averse preferences do not always affect the decisions of supply chain members. If certain conditions are satisfied, the logistics service integrator can benefit from its loss-averse preference. Second, the increased service level can affect the logistics service integrator's procurement strategy and the functional logistics service provider's pricing strategy. This effect is only related to the loss-averse preference of the functional logistics service provider. Last, under certain conditions, the total service capacity decreases with the increased service level, regardless of whether or not the supply chain members have loss-averse preferences.     

提前期需求为模糊随机条件下的连续库存补货策略

考虑提前期内需求为模糊随机变量且提前期为可缩短情形下,建立由购买商和供应商所组成的简单供应链连续库存补货策略优化模型,其中订单量、再订货点和提前期为决策变量.首先推导出模糊随机需求条件下购买商和供应链的成本函数,然后,进一步考虑总需求为三角模糊数,推导出供应商、购买商和供应链的模糊成本函数.在此基础上分别从购买商成本最小和供应链成本最小角度对模型进行求解,结合具体算例对模型进行应用分析和比较分析,结果表明模型具有有效性和实用性,并得出如下结论:从购买商本身角度考虑订购策略所产生的供应链成本总是大于从供应链整体角度考虑订货策略所产生的供应链成本,同时从购买商本身角度考虑订货策略所产生的最优订购量、购买商成本低于从供应链整体角度考虑订货策略所产生的最优订购量、购买商成本.     

The effect of product variety on supply-chain performance

We present a stylized model for analyzing the effect of product variety on supply-chain performance for a supply chain with a single manufacturer and multiple retailers. The manufacturer produces multiple products on a shared resource with limited capacity and the effect of changeovers on supply-chain cost is due primarily to setup time rather than setup cost. We show that the expected replenishment lead time and the retailers' costs are concave increasing in product variety and that the increase is asymptotically linear. Thus, if setup times are significant, the effect of product variety on cost is substantially greater than that suggested by the risk-pooling literature for perfectly flexible manufacturing processes, where the cost increases proportionally to the square root of product variety. We demonstrate that disregarding the effect of product variety on lead time can lead to poor decisions and can lead companies to offer product variety that is greater than optimal. The results of our analysis enable decision-makers to quantify the effect of product variety on supply-chain performance and thus to determine the optimal product variety to offer. The results can also be used to evaluate how changes in the manufacturing process, the supply-chain structure, and the customer demand rate can improve the performance of supply chains with high product variety.     

零售商信息分享对双渠道绿色供应链绩效影响研究

研究了零售商市场需求预测信息分享对双渠道绿色供应链绩效的影响。运用不完全信息动态博弈方法建立并求解零售商信息分享和信息不分享下的绿色供应链决策模型,得到贝叶斯均衡解和各方最优期望利润。研究发现:在双渠道绿色供应链中,若零售商对市场需求预测较为乐观,信息分享使得制造商更有动机提高产品绿色度;此外零售商信息分享总是有利于制造商利润增加,但并非总是使得零售商利润损失。当制造商绿色投资效率较高时,信息分享使得零售商利润增加,反之,信息分享使得零售商利润降低。对整个绿色供应链利润的影响取决于渠道间竞争强度、直销渠道市场份额及制造商绿色投资效率。最后用数值仿真验证了模型和结论的有效性。     

Random yield supply chain with a yield dependent secondary market

This paper considers a simple supply chain with one supplier and one retailer where the supplier’s production is subject to random yield and the retailer faces uncertain demand. There exists a secondary market for acquiring or disposing products by the supplier. We study both the centralized and decentralized systems. In the decentralized system, a no risk sharing contract and a risk sharing minimum commitment contract are analyzed. The supply chain with the risk sharing contract is further analyzed with a constant secondary market price and a yield dependent secondary market price. We present both the supplier’s and the retailer’s optimal strategies and provide insights for managers when making decisions under random yield risk and demand uncertainty. We find that the secondary market generally has a positive impact on supply chain performance and the actual effect of random yield risk on the supply chain performance depends on cost parameters and supply chain contract settings. Under certain conditions, reducing yield randomness may weaken the double marginalization effect and improve the chain performance. From the numerical study, we also show that there exists an optimal commitment level for the supply chain.     

竞争环境下供应链的BOPS合作策略及其对交通拥堵改善的影响

针对由一个拥有线上直销渠道的制造商以及一个线下零售商组成的供应链,考虑消费者对不同渠道的偏好构建了供应链博弈模型,研究了竞争环境下制造商与零售商的最优BOPS合作策略,并分析了BOPS合作在改善交通拥堵方面的作用。研究表明,BOPS合作在缓解供应链双重边际效应的同时会加剧渠道之间的价格竞争,所以并不总是对供应链有利;仅当消费者线上渠道偏好程度比较低且线下麻烦成本比较大时,制造商和零售商才会都从BOPS合作中受益从而自愿达成合作,其他情形下制造商可根据供应链利润变化设计转移支付契约促成与线下零售商的BOPS合作并实现双赢;此外,一定条件下BOPS合作能够通过调整渠道需求结构,在保证供应链成员利润的同时对交通拥堵改善也带来正向作用。     

Optimal business policies for a supplier–transporter–buyer channel with a price-sensitive demand

As the third party logistics partners (carriers) taking a more and more significant role in supply chain practices and customer service performance improvement, there is an emerging need for the studies on optimal channel coordination policies for business processes involving not only supplier and buyer (retailer), but also transportation partners. In this paper, we explicitly add a transportation partner with concave cost functions into the analysis for supplier–buyer channel coordination policies, and analyse the impact of coordination and pricing policies on supply chain profitability. The market demand is assumed to be a decreasing convex function of buyer's selling price (x), D(x)=d/x². Under this assumption, we quantify the improvement on total supply chain profitability when moving from a non-cooperative environment to a fully cooperative environment, and show that the joint annual profit of three partners in a cooperative environment can be at least twice of what may be achieved by three independently operated companies in a leader–follower business game. While in a real-world business environment, a perfect collaboration is hard to achieve, this result can be used to provide a quick estimation on the upper bound on the budget for profit sharing or discount offers among the supply chain partners.     

随机弹性需求下供应链销售价格与提前期联合决策及协调机制

研究了市场需求随机且对销售价格及提前期敏感的条件下,供应链如何制定最优的销售价格、提前期以及库存因子使得利润最大化。首先,分析了集中决策与分散决策供应链的最优决策,发现集中决策与分散决策模式下的提前期与库存因子是相同的,但分散决策下的销售价格更高、期望利润更低,且分散决策与集中决策供应链的利润之比随着需求对价格的敏感程度的增大而增大。然后建立了收入共享与成本分担的协调机制,并分析了其最优决策。研究发现,协调决策机制可以有效地压缩提前期,并能同时使供应链达到帕累托改进,但不能达到完美协调,而且还发现协调决策下制定的最优销售价格比分散决策要低。最后通过数值计算对三种供应链决策模式下的绩效进行了比较分析,结果表明供应链利润随着需求方差增大而减小,提前期压缩程度随着材料成本承担比例增大而增大。上述结论可以为企业制定销售价格与提前期决策以及企业间的协调提供有益的指导。     

Robust environmental closed-loop supply chain design under uncertainty

With the fast developments in product remanufacturing to improve economic and environmental performance, an environmental closed-loop supply (ECLSC) chain is important for enterprises' competitiveness. In this paper, a robust ECLSC network is investigated which includes multiple plants, collection centers, demand zones, and products, and consists of both forward and reverse supply chains. First, a robust multi-objective mixed integer nonlinear programming model is proposed to deal with ECLSC considering two conflicting objectives simultaneously, as well as the uncertain nature of the supply chain. Cost parameters of the supply chain and demand fluctuations are subject to uncertainty. The first objective function aims to minimize the economical cost and the second objective function is to minimize the environmental influence. Then, the proposed model is solved as a single-objective mixed integer programming model applying the LP-metrics method. Finally, numerical example has been presented to test the model. The results indicate that the proposed model is applicable in practice.     

Channel coordination in green supply chain management

Environmental consciousness has become increasingly important in everyday life and business practice. The effort to reduce the impact of business activities on the environment has been labelled as green supply chain management. Any major greening project would require efforts on the part of the entire supply chain. However, very few studies have addressed the issue of coordinating the green supply chain. We consider the problem of coordination of a manufacturer and a retailer in a vertical supply chain, who put in efforts for ‘greening’ their operations. We address some pertinent questions in this regard such as extent of effort in greening of operations by manufacturer or retailer, level of cooperation between the two parties, and how to coordinate their operations in a supply chain. The greening efforts by the manufacturer and retailer result in demand expansion at the retail end. The decision variables of the manufacturer are wholesale price and greening effort, while those of the retailer are retail price and its greening effort. We find that the ratio of the optimal greening efforts put in by the manufacturer and retailer is equal to the ratio of their green sensitivity ratios and greening cost ratios. Further, profits and efforts are higher in the integrated channel as compared to the case of the decentralized channel. Finally, a two-part tariff contract is found to produce channel coordination in this problem. A numerical example illustrates the results.     

代销集成服务模式下的农产品供应链协调研究

冷链物流短板制约了生鲜电商发展.基于平台商(代销商)为供应商提供"代销十冷链物流"的集成服务模式,构建了供应商和代销商的集中式决策和分散式决策模型,求解出最优代销期和保鲜努力水平.在此基础上,重点探讨了损耗分担、物流成本分担、收益共享和"收益共享+损耗分担"组合契约协调农产品供应链的性质.结论 表明,4种契约均不能完美...     

Transaction cost analysis of supply chain logistics services: firm-based <Emphasis Type="Italic">versus</Emphasis> port-focal

With the overwhelming findings that systemic risk dominates idiosyncratic risk in individual firms along a supply chain or in an industrial sector, and noting the fact that supply chain literature so far has been firm-based, it is critical to analyse inter-firm transactions and related risks which have largely been omitted from current supply chain research. To advance along this critical dimension, we develop a transaction cost frontier model that allows inter-firm transaction facilities in terms of a port-focal supply chain modelling framework. The key findings are as follows. (1) Environment heterogeneity is a characteristic transaction attribute, and logistics efficiency is critically dependent on both intra-firm asset specificity (Williamson, 2002) and inter-firm environment heterogeneity when ports are considered as transaction facilities. Port logistics demonstrates that horizontal integration (as opposed to vertical integration) becomes more cost effective as environment heterogeneity increases, given the same degree of asset specificity among individual ports. (2) An adaptive advantage (eg, transaction efficiency) is identified and characterized through the port-focal industrialization of supply chains, and is found to be an explanatory cause for the geographically concentrated horizontal specialization and differentiation, as increasingly observed in practice. Logistics industrialization will bring about the growth of port-focal urbanization.