Technique for calculating the vulnerability of explosive surface objects by lightning

A probabilistic technique for estimating the vulnerability of explosive surface objects by lightning has been proposed. It uses a combined criterion for initiation of upward streamer and leader discharges form the elements of the object and lightning diverters. This criterion takes into account the probabilistic nature of avalanche–streamer and streamer–leader transitions and also the trajectories of the lightning’s downward stepped leader and lightning current. It has been shown that, if the formation of the downward leader of incomplete streamer discharges from the elements of the object in an electric field is neglected (these discharges may set fire on explosive emissions), the probability of lightning-induced failure of the object is underestimated by several times compared with the calculated value.     

Identification of lightning vulnerability points on complex grounded structures

The identification of the most vulnerable points on a given structure to be struck by lightning is an important issue on the design of a reliable lightning protection system. Traditionally, these lightning strike points are identified using the rolling sphere method, through an empirical correlation with the prospective peak return stroke current. However, field observations in Kuala Lumpur and Singapore have shown that the points where lightning flashes strike buildings also depend on the height and geometry of the structure. Since a lightning strike point is believed to be the place on a grounded structure where a propagating upward leader is first initiated, a physical leader inception model is used here to estimate the background electric field required to initiate a stable upward leader from the corners of some complex buildings. The computed location of the points from where leaders are incepted are compared with the damaged points on buildings struck by lightning. The observed lightning strike points coincide rather well with the corners of the buildings which are characterized by lower leader inception electric fields. Furthermore, it is found that the geometry of the buildings significantly influences the conditions necessary to initiate upward leaders and, therefore, the location of the most likely strike points.     

On peculiarities of the method for determining the probability of lightning striking terrestrial explosive objects

We have described a new probabilistic method for calculating and assessing lightning striking terrestrial explosive objects using a combined criterion for the emergence of upward streamer and leader discharges from the elements of the object being protected and lightning rods taking into account the probabilistic nature of the avalanche–streamer and streamer–leader transitions, the trajectories of a downward stepped lightning leader and lightning current. It has been shown that the disregard of possible formation of uncompleted streamer discharges from the elements of the object in the electric field of a downward lightning leader, which can ignite explosive emission, decreases the rated probability of the object being damaged by a lightning stroke by several times.     

基于先导发展模型的舰艇避雷防护评估仿真

基于先导发展模型实现了海域上地闪先导2维数值放电模拟,完成了海域上地闪先导放电通道过程的图样采集。通过建立二维舰船模型,并根据相关标准对舰船模型进行避雷针的数量、高度、位置设定,对此模型进行雷电先导放电数值试验。经大量试验统计分析,舰船采用单根避雷针设计方案时,避雷针的高度较高,使得接闪概率明显增大,但在避雷针周围取得了较理想的防护效果;与单根设计方案相比,双根避雷针设计使得舰船整体结构高度降低,总的接闪次数有所减少,防护效果更佳。该评估方法可与长间隙放电试验和雷电观测互为补充,进一步完善了水面舰艇避雷系统防护评估检验技术,为舰艇的雷电防护提供理论基础。     

Statistical model of the lightning leader attraction to ground objects

A statistical model of the lightning channel attraction to ground objects is proposed based on the analysis of the available experimental data on the breakdown of long air gaps and the propagation of the lightning leader channel. The model allows one to estimate the probability of lightning interception by a lightning rod and of lightning damage of the protected object. Examples of calculating the probabilities of lightning strike to the lightning rod and neighboring areas are presented.     

Shielding failure rate calculation by means of downward and upward lightning leader movement models: Effect of environmental conditions

In this paper the effects of environmental conditions on shielding failure rate (SFR) of transmission lines are investigated. The study utilizes a previously published work in which leader progression model for lightning upward and downward leaders are used to calculate the SFR. Taking into account the effects of reduced air density and humidity on the parameters of upward leader model and wind pressure on the movement of lightning leaders and wires, SFR and maximum lightning stroke current causing shielding failure are computed. The electric field in all simulations is calculated by means of charge simulation method. The results of simulation show that the effects of relative air density and height of installation are quite higher than that of the wind pressure and humidity while the humidity has the lowest impact on the SFR of investigated transmission line.     

On the interception of lightning flashes by power transmission lines

The design of the lightning protection system LPS of transmission lines is based on the well known electro-geometrical model. The electro-geometrical model assumes that the first point on a power transmission line that will come within striking distance of the tip of a down-coming stepped leader channel is the strike point of the lightning flash. The model neglects almost all of the physics associated with the lightning attachment.Nowadays, as it is possible to use modern hardware and software tools and several different numerical methods, it is feasible to apply the physics of the discharge process to the study of lightning attachment. Such models take into account the movement of the downward and the resulting upward leaders from different points on the structures under consideration.In this paper, a procedure based on lightning physics was used to analyze the lightning attachment phenomena in EHV transmission lines of 230 kV and 500 kV and the results were compared with the predictions of the electro-geometrical method.     

Evaluation of parameters influencing the lightning performance of communication towers by numerical modeling and experimental tests

This paper analyzes the effective parameters on lightning performance. The effects of tower height, breakdown electric field threshold, the ground slope of installation place, and the effect of the trees around the tower are investigated. A 3-D numerical analysis model is proposed to determine the number of direct lightning strokes to antennas. The communication tower, lightning rod, downward descending leader and upward leaders are modeled by different shapes of charges. Finally, a small-scale communication tower was built and tested in a high voltage laboratory. The experimental tests were consistent with the simulation results verifying the merits of the proposed method.     

基于分形理论的飞机雷击初始附着点的数值模拟

飞机雷击附着点的确定能够为飞机防雷设计提供依据,是飞机雷击区域划分和飞机各部件进行雷电试验鉴定的先决条件.本文提出了一种基于分形理论的飞机雷击初始附着点数值模拟的新方法.该方法首先依据标准SAE-ARP5416中有关飞机雷击附着点试验的规定,确定放电间隙、雷电起始坐标、飞机姿态和放电次数等参数,然后根据分形理论,使用电介质击穿模型模拟符合自然界雷电物理机理和几何特征的雷电先导分形发展过程,同时考虑飞机自身触发双向先导的情况,最终得到飞机的雷击附着点分布.通过本文方法仿真模拟得到飞机F-4雷击附着点的分布概率,并分别与该飞机飞行实验和实验室高压放电实验测试得到的真实雷击附着点的概率分布情况比较,结果基本吻合,验证了该方法的有效性.研究结果为飞机雷击附着点仿真模拟提供了一个有潜力的方法,可作为飞机防雷设计和今后开展相关研究工作的基础.     

Numerical simulations of thunderstorm-induced corona processes near lightning rods installed on grounded structures

For the purpose of estimating the efficacy of a lightning rod, the current of a corona was numerically calculated from a rod placed (i) centrally on the roof of a vertical grounded cylindrical structure, a model of a man-made object, and (ii) at the top of a grounded hemispherical structure of large radius, such as a hill or mountain. The calculations were carried out for a slowly varying thundercloud electric field and when this field was enhanced by the charge of an approaching downward leader. In case (i), variation of the ratio between the height and radius of the cylindrical structure leads to a variation in the (a) corona current from the tip of the rod over a wide range and (b) distance from which lightning is attached to the rod. In case (ii), it is shown that, contrary to the case of rods installed on the ground surface, a slowly rising thundercloud electric field can be sufficient to initiate streamers and upward leaders from rods tens of meters in height installed on the top of tall, grounded, hemispherical structures. When the thundercloud electric field is enhanced by the charge of an approaching downward leader, the discharge processes near the rod depend on its length and the height of the tip of the downward leader relative to the top of the hemispherical structure, but are almost independent of the hemisphere radius.     

On the streamer discharges emitted from the head of a person located in the vicinity of lightning strikes and their possible consequences

In this paper the currents associated with the streamer discharges generated from the head of a person located in the vicinity of a lightning strike are investigated. In the analysis the location of the person with respect to the lightning strike is selected in such a way that only a streamer burst, without the formation of a connecting leader, is emitted from the head. The current associated with these streamer bursts could exceed several hundreds of mA and may last for several hundreds of microseconds. The results of the calculation show that the passage of the streamer currents through the body of the person could create electric fields in the brain large enough to excite neurons. Depending on the strength of lightning flash and the distance to the strike point these streamer bursts can give rise to phosphenes which are a form of visual experience that occurs when the visual cortex is stimulated by electric currents.     

Analysis of shielding failure parameters of high voltage direct current transmission lines

This paper studies the influence of different parameters on the shielding failure of high voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission lines. A numerical analysis model considering the developing process of the downward lightning leader based on electromagnetic field theory is used to estimate the lateral striking distance to the transmission line. The influences of different factors (different parameters of the downward lightning leader, HVDC transmission line, and weather conditions) on the shielding failure of the HVDC transmission line (TL) have been considered in this analysis. The results show that the dimensions of the transmission line strongly affect the analysed results of the HVDC–TL shielding failure.     

Mathematical description of leader channel propagation for selection of model experiment parameters and lightning guard systems

A statistical model of the leader channel propagating toward the Earth with consideration for its orientation relative to grounded objects is proposed, and the results obtained are compared with the predictions of model experiments. Recommendations of how to optimize model experiment conditions for gaining insight into the electric mechanism of the leader channel orientation relative to ground objects are given. The probability of hitting an area protected by a lightning conductor is calculated, and possible ways of improving lightning protection devices are outlined.     

闪电物理

闪电物理研究的重点是地闪的研究，地闪的物理过程包括云中起闪过程，闪电传播过程及接地过程，在较大范围的云中强电场区内，两雨滴掠过碰撞形成的细丝顶端产生的电晕或冰类痧汽凝结物表面的电晕可能触发闪电；闪电在空气中的传输过程就是先导从电晕向电弧的转化过程；闪电落地过程的核心是上迎先导的形成及与下行先导的连接，闪电物理研究的重点在闪电落地过程，并应与雷电防护研究结合起来进行。     

Identification of striking distance considering the velocity ratio and competition among the leaders

The striking distance is an important parameter to design a reliable lightning protection system. To protect an object against direct strikes, an improved leader progression model combined fractal geometry and the leader initiation criteria proposed by M. Becerra is introduced to determine the striking distance on a given structure. Both the deterministic and stochastic features of the lightning leader are considered and more detailed three-dimensional numerical simulation of the leader discharge is achieved due to the application of extended grid. Some of the basic methods and strategies are outlined and the influence on protection zone caused by leader velocity ratio is analyzed. Moreover, a comparative analysis of the results obtained through the improved model, the rolling sphere method and the Cooray model is performed. The results indicate that the presented method is closer to the natural lightning and the selection of the breakdown point is actually a complex competitive process among numerous upward leaders.     

On the attachment of lightning flashes to grounded structures with special attention to the comparison of SLIM with CVM and EGM

Lightning attachment to vertical grounded conductors are presented with special attention to the lightning attractive radii of vertical conductors as predicted by self consistent leader inception and propagation model (SLIM), Electro Geometrical Model (EGM) and Collection Volume Method (CVM). Moreover, SLIM was utilized to model the attachment of a slanted stepped leader to a tall tower that resulted in a side flash to a point below the top of the tower. The important conclusions to be drawn from the results obtained are the following: (a) The error (caused by neglect of the connecting leader in EGM) in the predicted attractive radii and the striking distance of EGM increases with increasing structure height. However, for structures whose height is shorter than about 30 m the error associated with using EGM is less than about 20%. (b) The attractive radii predicted by the Collection Volume Method (CVM) are much larger than the ones predicted by SLIM and EGM. Thus, the use of CVM to locate the lightning conductors on a structure may undermine its safety. (c) Slanted stepped leader channels can cause side flashes in tall structures even though long connecting leaders are emitted from the top of the structure.     

Positioning of lightning rods using Monte Carlo technique

Monte Carlo simulation algorithms for electro-geometrical model are used in this work to solve the problem of complexity arising in the positioning of lightning rods on large buildings. Based on this algorithm, the probability distribution of lightning strikes on entire building structure is obtained and locations of higher lightning strike probability are determined. These spots are used to install lightning rods. The proposed work can be directly applied to protect any building structure.     

Triggering and guiding of an upward positive leader from a ground rod with an ultrashort laser pulse. I. Experimental results

Using a plasma channel produced by an ultrashort laser pulse, we have studied the laser triggering and guiding of a positive leader from the tip of a 2-m vertical rod standing on the bottom plane of a 7-m plane-plane gap. The purpose of this setup was to reproduce in the laboratory the electric field conditions leading to the onset of a positive upward leader from a ground rod as a downward negative leader is approaching during a thunderstorm, in order to demonstrate the working principle of a possible future laser lightning rod. The leader triggering properties of the laser-created plasma channel have been studied as a function of the synchronization of the laser pulse with the voltage impulse applied to the gap. We show that the laser pulse reduces the inception voltage of the leader compared to its normal value and that the laser plasma channel guides the propagation of the upward leader at a velocity ten times higher than that of an ordinary leader, with a significantly lower charge per unit length. We show that laser guiding of the leader significantly reduces the breakdown voltage of the gap and that the effect of the laser channel at the end of a lightning rod can be compared quite favorably with the effect of an additional metal rod of the same length.     

Computation of the probability of lightning damage to ground objects

Based on the statistical model proposed by the authors to describe the lightning leader advance toward the Earth and, specifically, toward grounded objects, an approach is developed for calculating the probability distributions for lightning damage to protected objects and lightning rods. Examples of lightning damage probability calculation are given for lightnings with various potentials (relative to the ground) and for various sites of the protected areas.     

Main stage of the lightning discharge: Mechanism and output characteristics

Physical processes responsible for the lightning discharge are considered. An expression relating the basic physical quantities describing the evolution of the lightning discharge to the magnitude and waveform of the lightning current is found. It is shown that the peak lightning current is proportional to the lightning channel length, the steepness of the current pulse depends on the physical constants of the spark discharge, and the current pulse duration depends on the physical constants of the spark discharge and also on the leader’s space charge density.