Sol–gel synthesis of sodium and lithium based materials

Sodium and lithium cobaltates are important materials for thermoelectric and battery applications due to their large thermoelectric power and ability to (de-) intercalate the alkali metal. For these applications, phase pure materials with controlled microstructure are required. We report on the sol?Cgel synthesis of sodium- and lithium-based materials by using acetate precursors. The produced Na_2/3CoO₂, Li(Ni_1/3Mn_1/3Co_1/3)O₂, and Li(Ni_1/2Co_1/2)O₂ powders are phase pure with grain sizes below 1???m. X-ray diffraction and energy-dispersive spectral analyses show that the cation stoichiometry is preserved in the lithium-based compounds. Despite the low temperatures, the sodium content is reduced by 1/3 as compared to the initial value. Chemical phases of the investigated powders are formed in the sol?Cgel route at temperatures typically 100?C200?K lower than those used in the conventional solid-state synthesis of these materials. The suggested sol?Cgel synthesis is a low temperature process suited for production of phase pure and homogeneous materials with volatile cations.     

Sol–gel combustion synthesis of BNBT powders

Ba-modified bismuth sodium titanate with composition 0.94[(Bi_0.5Na_0.5)TiO₃]-0.06BaTiO₃ (BNBT) was prepared by a citrate nitrate sol–gel combustion method. The sol was obtained using barium acetate, bismuth nitrate, sodium nitrate and a peroxo-citrate complex of titanium isopropoxide as starting precursors. Various molar ratios of citrate/nitrate (C/N) were considered for the sol production. The corresponding gels were fired at different temperatures (300, 400, 500 °C) in order to evaluate the conditions necessary to obtain the decomposition of the precursors and the formation of the pure BNBT perovskitic phase in a single step. The best conditions to obtain the desired phase are: (C/N) = 0.2, and combustion temperature of 500 °C. Ball milled powders were densified at a temperature 100 °C lower than the one generally used for powder produced with the conventional mixed oxide route. The electrical properties are comparable to those reported for conventionally prepared materials.     

Sol–gel synthesis of tetragonal ZrO2 nanoparticles stabilized by crystallite size and oxygen vacancies

In this letter, we present a facile route to produce metastable tetragonal zirconia (ZrO₂) nanoparticles via pH-controlled precipitation of dilute zirconyl nitrate dihydrate [ZrO(NO₃)₂·2H₂O] solution in liquid NH₃ under ambient conditions and calcination at 500 °C for 2 h. The phase pure tetragonal ZrO₂ nanoparticles are obtained at pH 9. The effect of pH on metastable phase stabilization in precipitated ZrO₂ nanoparticles is demonstrated with the help of XRD, SEM/EDX, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy techniques. The stability of tetragonal ZrO₂ phase is attributed to the smaller crystallite size and greater oxygen deficiency in phase-pure tetragonal ZrO₂.     

Sol–gel synthesis of iron oxide–silica composite microstructures

Spherical silica particles doped with iron oxide have been synthesized via base-catalyzed one-pot sol?Cgel process using tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) and iron(III) ethoxide (ITE) as co-precursors. In the modified St?ber process adopted, depending on the concentration of ITE in the starting composition, materials of various morphologies were observed under a scanning electron microscope and an atomic force microscope. The presence of ITE significantly affected the formation process of particulate silica; the spherical particles were formed accompanied by the co-presence of irregular-shaped finer aggregates. The fraction of the aggregates with rough surfaces increased with an increase of the ITE content in the reaction mixture. Both the spherical particles and irregular-shaped aggregates contained iron hydroxide and they exhibited paramagnetic behavior. The chemical composition and physicochemical properties of the materials were determined using various complementary spectroscopic methods.     

Sol–gel synthesis and crystallization behaviour of β-spodumene

Lithium aluminum silicate powders in the form of β-spodumene were synthesized through sol–gel technique by mixing boehmite sol, silica sol and lithium salt. The gel and oxide powders were characterized by thermogravimetry, differential thermal analysis (DTA), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transformed infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. DTA, XRD and FTIR results confirmed that crystallization of β-spodumene took place at about 800 °C. The tiny crystallites with average size less than 1 μm appeared when the gel powders were sintered at 800 °C. A substantial increase of the crystal grain size was observed with increasing sintering temperatures.     

Sol–gel synthesis and structure of silica hybrid materials

In this work the research results on the sol–gel synthesis and structure of silica nanocomposites, containing carrageenan and their application as carriers for cell immobilization were described. The samples were prepared at room temperature by replacing different quantity of the inorganic precursor with κ-carrageenan. For studying the structure of the synthesized hybrids the following methods were used: FT-IR, XRD, BET-Analysis, SEM, AFM and Roughness Analysis. The influence of the type of silicon precursors, nature and quantity of organic component on the structure, surface area, design and size of nanostructures was established. The possibility of application of the synthesized biocatalysts in an enzyme degradation process of the toxic, carcinogenic and mutagenic substances benzonitrile, fumaronitrile, o-, m-, and p-tolunitriles was investigated at batch experiments. A two-step biodegradation process in a column bioreactor of fumaronitrile was followed. After operation of the system for 8 h at a flow rate 45 mL h^?1 and at 60 °C, the overall conversion was 89%, showing a good stability of the developed process.     

Sol–gel synthesis of highly effective catalyst based on cobalt tetrasulfophthalocyanine complex and silicon oxide

New hybrid materials based on silicon oxide and water soluble cobalt phthalocyanine complex were synthesized and characterized. It was shown that synthesized material exhibit pronounced catalytic activity in the R–SH type of organic compounds oxidation reaction in comparison with the individual macroheterocycle. The influence of the synthetic route of the hybrid material preparation on its catalytic efficiency was determined.     

Sol–gel synthesis and optical behavior of Mg–Ce–O nano-crystallites

The Mg–Ce–O powder are shown to contain periclase-type MgO and/or fluoride-type cerium oxide (CeO₂) depending upon the composition (x) defined by Ce/(Ce + Mg) atomic ratio. Lattice contraction of pariclase phase of MgO (average crystallite size ~8.8 nm) at Ce content of ‘x’ = 0.20 in comparison to pure MgO (crystallite size ~9.5 nm) has been realized due to oxygen vacancy formation. The optical band gap values of CeO₂ varies (3.0–3.2 eV) due to oxygen vacancy formation in CeO₂ phase, crystallite size and/or Ce³⁺/Ce⁴⁺ ratio. Further, the addition of Ce has shown to reduce the physisorption and chemisorption of water significantly as reflected by (1) suppression of related absorption peaks and (2) absence of magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)₂, bands in Fourier transform infrared spectra.     

Sol–gel synthesis and characterization of titania monolith with bimodal porosity

Monolithic titania materials with macro-mesoporosity bimodal texture have been prepared through a template-free sol–gel approach, based on the reaction of hydrolysis and polycondensation of titanium isopropoxide promoted by the slow released water from esterification between acetic acid and methanol under a strong acidic condition. With the coarsening of the titania oligomers, phase separation and sol–gel transition processes take place so as to form a homogeneous gel system that will change into a monolith after aging, drying and heat treatment. The synthesized titania monolith possesses a specific surface area of 77 m² g⁻¹ (calcined at 350 °C), an anatase with partly rutile crystallite structure and great mechanical strength. The synthesis method applied here is simple and easy to implement as no extra chemical modifier such as poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) and formamide is needed to control the process. The properties of biomodal porous structure, satisfactory surface area and high mechanical strength will enable the monolith to be served as a chromatography column to separate phosphorus organo-compounds.     

Sol–gel template synthesis and characterization of VO2 nanotube arrays

In this paper, we report on the obtention of highly ordered VO₂ nanotube arrays synthesized by the simple sol?Cgel template method. Techniques of transmission electron microscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy were used to characterize the morphology and structure of the as-synthesized nanotube arrays. It is found that the size of the as-obtained nanotubes has the dimension of 180?C220?nm in outer diameter, 110?C140?nm in inner diameter and up to 10???m in length. The results show that as-synthesized sample is assigned to VO₂ (B) phase in expected V/O ratio with V existing in the +4 oxidation state.     

Sol–gel combustion synthesis and characterization of nanostructure copper chromite spinel

Nanocomposite copper chromite spinel was fabricated by sol–gel process using copper nitrate trihydrate, chromium nitrate nonahydrate, ethylene glycol, diethyl ether, and citric acid. The thermoanalytical measurements (TG–DTG), X-ray powder diffractometry (XRD), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and energy dispersive X-ray analysis were used to characterize the structural and the chemical features of the nanocomposites. TG–DTG results showed that the major mass loss for copper(II) nitrate, chromium(III) nitrate as precursors occur at 258 and 140 °C, respectively. The major mass loss for dried gel of copper chromite occurs at 310 °C. XRD data revealed the formation of pure copper chromite after thermal decomposition at 1,000 °C for 2 h. The observation of XRD patterns reveals the presence of single-phase tetragonal spinel CuCr₂O₄. FESEM analysis of calcined composite was found to be in the range of 20–30 nm.     

Sol–gel synthesis,optical and structural characterization of ZrOS nanopowder

In this paper, we report the synthesis of tetragonal zirconium oxysulfide t-ZrOS nanopowder by the sol–gel method using water solution of a precursor containing thiourea [CS(NH₂)₂] and zirconium in the form of an anionic oxalate complex [Zr(C₂O₄)]^4?. The tetragonal t-ZrOS structure with space group P4/nmm revealed by X-ray patterns showed preferred orientation along (101) plane. For surface morphology, compositional and optical absorption studies, scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray and ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy were employed for characterization of the powder respectively. A nearly constant value of the refractive index at higher wavelength λ ≥ 1,100 nm was found to be 2.19. High indirect and direct optical band gap of ~2.0 and 2.50 eV with absorbance <40 % were obtained for the powder.     

Sol–gel synthesis of mesoporous WO3–TiO2 composite thin films for photochromic devices

Mesoporous WO₃–TiO₂ composite films were prepared by a sol gel based two stage dip coating method and subsequent annealing at 450, 500 and 600 °C. An organically modified silicate based templating strategy was adopted in order to obtain a mesoporous structure. The composite films were prepared on ITO coated glass substrates. The porosity, morphology, and microstructures of the resultant products were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, N₂ adsorption–desorption measurements, μ-Raman spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction. Calcination of the films at 450, and 500 °C resulted in mixed hexagonal (h) plus monoclinic phases, and pure monoclinic (m) phase of WO₃, respectively. The degree of crystallization of TiO₂ present in these composite films was not evident. The composite films annealed at 600 °C, however, consist of orthorhombic (o) WO₃ and anatase TiO₂. It was found that the o-WO₃ phase was stabilized by nanocrystalline anatase TiO₂. The thus obtained mesoporous WO₃–TiO₂ composite films were dye sensitized and applied for the construction of photochromic devices. The device constructed using dye sensitized WO₃–TiO₂ composite layer heat treated at 600 °C showed an optical modulation of 51 % in the NIR region, whereas the devices based on the composite layers heat treated at 450, and 500 °C showed only a moderate optical modulation of 24.9, and 38 %, respectively. This remarkable difference in the transmittance response is attributed to nanocrystalline anatase TiO₂ embedded in the orthorhombic WO₃ matrix of the WO₃–TiO₂ composite layer annealed at 600 °C.     

Sol–gel synthesis of nanosilver embedded hybrid materials using combined organosilica precursors

A facile sol–gel route to the fabrication of size-controllable nanosilver embedded hybrid materials at room-temperature is presented. The preparation process involves using three kind of organosilica precursors, i.e. tetraethoxysilane, 3-mercaptopropyltrimethoxysilane and polymethylhydrosiloxane, which behaved as framework constructor, complexing agent toward metal ions and in situ reducing agent for Ag⁺ ions, respectively, under alcohol-rich synthesis conditions. The prepared hybrid materials were characterized by Ultraviolet–visible diffuse reflectance spectra, Fourier transform infrared, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, nitrogen adsorption–desorption measurements. It was shown that well-dispersed silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) with small particle size were successfully embedded in the hybrid skeleton, and the mean particle size of AgNPs could be controlled at ca. 2–5 nm.