Biomass fly ash deposition in an entrained flow reactor

Fly ash deposition on boiler surfaces is a major operational problem encountered in biomass-fired boilers. Understanding deposit formation, and developing modelling tools, will allow improvements in boiler efficiency and availability. In this study, deposit formation of a model biomass ash species (K₂Si₄O₉) on steel tubes, was investigated in a lab-scale Entrained Flow Reactor. K₂Si₄O₉ was injected into the reactor, to form deposits on an air-cooled probe, simulating deposit formation on superheater tubes in boilers. The influence of flue gas temperature (589 – 968°C), probe surface temperature (300 – 550°C), flue gas velocity (0.7 – 3.5?m/s), fly ash flux (10,000 – 40,000?g/m²h), and probe residence time (up to 60?min) was investigated. The results revealed that increasing flue gas temperature and probe surface temperature increased the sticking probability of the fly ash particles, thereby increasing the rate of deposit formation. However, increasing flue gas velocity resulted in a decrease in the deposit formation rate, due to increased particle rebound. Furthermore, the deposit formation rate increased with probe residence time and fly ash flux. Inertial impaction was the primary mechanism of deposit formation, forming deposits only on the upstream side of the steel tube. A mechanistic model was developed for predicting deposit formation in the reactor. Deposit formation by thermophoresis and inertial impaction was incorporated into the model, and the sticking probability of the ash particles was estimated by accounting for energy dissipation due to particle deformation. The model reasonably predicted the influence of flue gas temperature and fly ash flux on the deposit formation rate.     

Prediction and validation of ash sticking probability under fouling conditions in pulverized coal combustion

Under the fouling conditions in stationary coal combustion systems, the sticking/rebound behavior of solid incident particles is a key issue in determining the ash deposition rate. From a dynamic point of view, the bulk fly ash, which dominants the deposited mass, successively interacts with the clean tube, the inner fine deposited layer and the bulk deposited layer during ash deposition. In this paper, we experimentally investigate the time-resolved evolution of ash fouling in a 25 kW coal combustor. The deposited mass flux rapidly reaches a stable state that fluctuates around a mean value of ～3 g/(m²·s) for two kind of probe materials. The rapid initial stage only allows the formation of 1–2 layers of bulk deposited ash, revealing the dominant role of bulk deposit in capturing large incident particles. Inspired by the observation, we apply a 3D adhesive discrete element model (DEM) to fully describe the many-body evolving process subject to the incident events of a 30-µm particle. The simulation agrees well with the experiments when using a higher particle surface energy of 200 mJ/m². The rapidly growing feature of ash sticking probability with increasing the bulk deposit layers can be reproduced in this case, and an empirical formula is proposed. It is also validated that, at the deposit growth stage, the newly-deposited particles stay just where they impact. The effectiveness of the DEM tool shall benefit a fully-validated sticking/rebound model under the fouling condition that is convenient for CFD use.     

Dynamic evolution of impaction and sticking behaviors of fly ash particle in pulverized coal combustion

This paper aims to reveal the mechanisms governing the impaction and sticking dynamics of fly ash particles in pulverized coal combustion. The modeling work is of relevance to experiments in a 25?kW self-sustained down-fired furnace, which provides a sequence of real deposit shapes as varied boundary conditions for CFD simulations. Although the formed ash deposit has a comparable length scale with the probe, it has little effect on the global impaction efficiency of newly-coming particles. However, as the deposit builds up, incident particles impact the deposit and probe at generally larger impact angles and smaller normal velocities despite the almost invariant global impaction efficiency. It results in an enhanced local sticking probability in the center region of the probe, but a decreased one in the lateral regions. The incident kinetic energy of newly sticking particles to the deposit exhibits a converse correlation with their impact angle. The relationship of the averaged local sticking probability as a function of the azimuthal angle of probe is illustrated. Finally, the effect of Reynolds number on global particle impaction efficiency is examined. A universal formula is proposed, which is of importance to bridge lab-scale experiments and practical applications.     

燃煤黄铁矿迁移转化模拟的研究

基于已有的动力学数据对单颗粒黄铁矿迁移转化进行了全过程模拟,分析讨论了各种因素对黄铁矿氧化过程和S释放率的影响,结果表明:随着颗粒尺寸的减小和炉膛温度的升高,黄铁矿颗粒的分解氧化过程加快,颗粒在炉内停留很短时间内温度即升高到共融点以上,使颗粒呈混熔态,进而导致灰沉积、结渣.颗粒氧化过程中S的释放主要受扩散控制,其释放速率与颗粒粒径成反比,与氧气浓度和炉膛温度成正比.     

Modeling of the submicron particles formation and initial layer ash deposition during high temperature oxy-coal combustion

The future use of coal as a fuel for power generation in the US depends on the availability of financially viable technologies for capture and storage of CO₂ emissions from power plants. Key second-generation candidates for CO₂ capture include high temperature and pressurized oxy-firing of coal, which has the potential to increase efficiency, lower capital costs, avoid air ingress and reduce oxygen requirements. However, unquantified challenges, such as flame behavior, heat transfer, ash transformation, ash deposition and char oxidation, still exist for those technologies. This study specifically focuses on the formation of submicron particles and initial layer ash deposition during high temperature oxy-coal combustion. Previous work has shown that the initial layer deposits are mainly formed of submicron size ash aerosols transported by thermophoresis. Unfortunately, the importance of submicron particle deposition has not received much attention, probably due to the insignificant deposit mass and difficulty in prediction of the submicron particles formation. In this work, models including mineral matter vaporization model, scavenging model and deposition model are developed and applied into a three-dimensional CFD framework to predict the submicron particles formation and subsequent initial layer deposits formation. The model results are comparable to experimental data. The merits of this work are that it has led to the development of a novel approach to predict both submicron particle formation and initial layer ash deposition during oxy-coal combustion.     

Phosphor thermometry at the surface of single reacting large-diameter spherical coke particles to characterise combustion for packed bed furnaces

Packed-bed furnaces fired with large-diameter coke are important in high-temperature material processing industries such as lime and iron production. The combustion conditions are complicated by the presence of an ash layer surrounding the coke particle that remains intact during passage through the furnace and alters oxygen diffusion and heat transfer to the reacting particle core. The objective of this study is to determine the surface temperature of this ash layer using lifetime-based phosphor thermometry during combustion of single spherical 38 mm diameter coke particles in a high temperature tube furnace. Time traces of the coke particle core temperature and mass conversion rate do not significantly differ between experiments performed with and without the phosphor layer, indicating that the presence of the phosphor particles does not alter the overall combustion behaviour. Surface temperatures of up to 950 °C are measured and correlated with the fuel mass conversion rate. When the coke particle starts to react the surface temperature is up to 100 °C higher than that of the core. As the reaction front progresses toward the centre, the core temperature exceeds the surface temperature by 200 °C due to the insulating effect of the ash layer. The surface temperature of the ash layer decreases with time due to the steadily decreasing fuel mass conversion rate. The method and results can be used to provide key validation data for shrinking-core combustion models, for example by constraining the unknown transport properties of the ash layer, thereby assisting the development of complete packed-bed furnace simulations for process optimisation.     

Online deposition measurement and slag bubble behavior in the reduction zone of pulverized coal staged combustion

An online thermogravimetric measurement method of ash deposition was developed. Ash deposition and slag bubble in the reductive zone of pulverized coal staged combustion were investigated. Firstly, a steady pulverized coal staged combustion was achieved in an electrically heated down-fired furnace. Additionally, gas species, coal conversion, and particle size distribution were quantitatively measured. Secondly, real-time ash deposition rates at different temperatures (1100–1400 °C) were measured, and deposition samples were carefully collected with an N₂ protection method. The morphologies of collected samples were investigated through a scanning electron microscope. It was found that the deposited ash transformed from a porous layer composed of loosely bound particles to a solid layer formed by molten slag. Different behaviors of the slag bubble were observed, and bubble sizes were significantly affected by the deposition temperature. A deposition and bubble formation mechanism was proposed and used for modeling. Results showed that the proposed model well predicted the observed ash deposition and bubble formation process.     

Growth and morphology of carbon nanostructures on nickel oxide nanoparticles in catalytic chemical vapor deposition

The present study explores the conditions favorable for the growth of cylindrical carbon nanostructures such as multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) and carbon nanofiber by catalytic chemical vapor deposition (CCVD) method using nickel oxide-based catalyst nanoparticles of different average sizes as well as different levels of doping by copper oxide. The role of doping and the average size have been related to the observed melting behavior of nanoparticles of nickel oxide by thermal and diffraction analysis, and the importance of melting has been highlighted in the context of growth of cylindrical nanostructures. In the reducing environment prevailing in the CCVD chamber due to decomposition of flowing acetylene gas at elevated temperature, there is extensive reduction of oxide nanoparticles. Lack of melting and faster flow of carbon-bearing gases favor the formation of a carbon deposit cover over the catalyst nanoparticles giving rise to the formation of nanobeads. Melting allows rapid diffusion of carbon from the surface to inside catalyst particles, and reduced flow of gas lowers the rate of carbon deposit, both creating conditions favorable for the formation of cylindrical nanostructures, which grows around the catalyst particles. Smaller particle size and lower doping favor growth of MWCNT, while growth of fiber is commonly observed on larger particles having relatively higher level of doping.     

煤粉燃烧过程中灰膜形成比例实验研究

煤焦颗粒燃烧过程中,灰膜形成显著影响其燃烧特性.因此,本文借助高温沉降炉研究了 61～75,75～90和90～125 μm三种粒径黄陵烟煤在1273和1673 K温度下的燃烧特性与灰膜形成比例;借助扫描电镜(SEM)详细观测空心微珠颗粒内部结构,提出灰膜比例计算公式,并分析温度,粒径和碳转化率对灰膜比例的影响.结果表明...     

Modelling potassium release and the effect of potassium chloride on deposition mechanisms for coal and biomass-fired boilers

A model, predicting the release of potassium compounds and its effect on the deposition of superheaters, has been recently developed. The model has been implemented into the three-dimensional CFD program AIOLOS. Concerning the release of potassium compound, the vaporization of the potassium and its reactions in the gas phase are considered. The influence of turbulence on chemistry is considered by using the eddy dissipation concept. Two simulations, one for a coal with high content of chlorine and the other for a coal with low content of chlorine were performed on a small-scale entrained flow reactor. The modelling results are discussed and compared with measurements. Furthermore, the effect of the released potassium chloride on the deposition mechanisms has also been considered. In order to predict the deposition rate, two major deposition mechanisms i.e. condensation and inertial impaction are considered in the model. The sticking probability is modelled based on the melting behaviour of the species involved in the deposition process. Deposit formation in a 0.5 MW semi-industrial pulverized-fuel combustion test facility is predicted considering different operating conditions. Deposition rates on the deposition probe from two kinds of biomass are compared and discussed.     

Effect of gas temperature on critical velocity and deposition characteristics in kinetic spraying

This study evaluated the effects of particle temperature and substrate material on critical velocity and deposition efficiency in kinetic spraying. A wide range of process gas pressures and temperatures was used in this experiment to vary both particle velocity and temperature. A bronze (Cu-Sn alloy) feedstock was deposited onto aluminum, mild steel and bronze substrates. The experimental results showed that the critical velocity was strongly dependent on the combinations of particle/substrate and particle temperature. The decreasing critical velocity could be obtained at the same particle velocity, due to an increasing particle temperature. In our experiments, the critical velocity decreased by 50 m/s when the process gas temperature increased by 100 °C. When process conditions are optimized to have good bond strength and deposition efficiency, two critical velocities must be considered; one is that of the particle deposition onto the substrate (Vcr1) and the other is that of particle-particle bonding (Vcr2).     

Influence of laser-ablation plume dynamics on the room-temperature epitaxial growth of CeO2 on silicon

High-quality epitaxial CeO₂ thin films were obtained on Si(001) buffered with a yttria-stabilised zirconia layer by pulsed laser deposition. Although the best structural properties were achieved at high substrate temperature, high-quality epitaxy was obtained even at room temperature. Epitaxial growth at low temperature is promoted by the high kinetic energy of particles reaching the substrate. The oxygen pressure and target-substrate distance had a strong influence on the crystallographic structure and surface morphology in low-temperature deposition. This behaviour is attributed to a change in the kinetic energy of the particles, which was evaluated from the plasma expansion velocity determined by an intensified CCD camera. If a shock wave forms, a minimum substrate temperature of 550 °C is necessary for epitaxial growth.     

Selective laser processing of ink-jet printed nano-scaled tin-clad copper particles

The deposition of tin-clad nano-size copper particles was carried out by means of ink-jet printing. Curing the particles on Polyimide (PI) turned them into soldered structures using an Nd-YAG laser. Area coverage of 55% was achieved for a single-layer print. Subsequent laser sintering increased this value to 95%. A Butanol-based copper ink and an aqueous tin (Sn)-clad Copper (Cu) ink were produced and were ink-jetted in this work. These nano-metallic inks showed excellent suspension stability with particle weight concentrations as high as 5%. The ink components were examined by measuring the particle size distribution in a dispersed condition, and the melting temperature. A piezo ink-jet print head was used to deposit the inks onto a moveable substrate. The thermal effect of the laser irradiation allowed approaching and connecting adjacent particles by melting the particle’s tin coating. The results were examined with regard to structure and soldering properties using EDX, SEM and optical microscopy.     

Measurement of particle velocity and characterization of deposition in aluminum alloy kinetic spraying process

Particle velocity is a very important parameter in kinetic spraying (or cold gas dynamic spraying). It is difficult to measure the velocity of a particle with supersonic speed at low temperature (lower than 500 °C). Thus, in many investigations only estimated values are used for evaluating coating processes. In this paper, the modeling of particle acceleration was reviewed, and the measurement of in-flight particle velocity in a kinetic spraying process was performed. Particle velocity and flux distributions from different process gas temperatures and pressures were investigated. The influences of process gas temperature and pressure on particle velocity were discussed. Characteristic of Al-Si feedstock deposition onto a mild steel substrate was described by comparing coatings structures with the in-flight particle conditions. The deposition behavior showed two critical particle velocities for Al-Si powder deposition onto a substrate and for particle-particle bonding.     

Condensation Characteristics of Flue Gas/Steam Mixtures with Fine Lignite and Ash Particles along Horizontal Finned Tube Bundles

The condensation behavior for a gas/steam mixture with fine lignite particles and lignite ash particles is experimentally investigated as the particles flow over horizontal finned tube bundles. The effects of the gas velocity, inlet temperature of cooling water, excess air coefficient, and particle dimension are discussed. The total mass flow rate of the condensate and the condensation heat transfer coefficient for flue gas including particles are higher than those of flue gas excluding particles when Reynolds number is higher than 2,300. The area covered by ash depositions tends to grow from the leeward toward the windward side with increasing particle diameter.     

Predicting particle deposition for flow over a circular cylinder in combustion environments

Particle deposition on heat exchanger tubes is a serious concern in solid fuel combustion and gasification systems, such as power plants and syngas coolers. To predict deposition rates, several detailed computational fluid dynamic (CFD) models have been developed. However, these models are computationally expensive and cannot be used for quick determination of deposition rates and/or slagging tendencies. Particle impaction efficiency correlations, while not as accurate as detailed CFD models, are easier to use and are able to estimate the impaction rate of particles on the heat exchanger tubes. Nonetheless, since deposition and slagging are not just functions of particle impaction rates, but also sticking propensity, which is related to the particle temperature at impact, the impaction efficiency correlations fail to provide sufficient information. To address this shortcoming, similar correlations for particle temperature at impact have been developed in this work, based on a non-dimensional parameter that captures the flow and boundary conditions, as well as particle properties. When used alongside the impaction efficiency correlations, the new correlations developed can provide a reasonable estimate of the deposition and slagging tendencies, at negligible computational expense.     

An investigation of the thermal and catalytic behaviour of potassium in biomass combustion

Potassium, a key nutrient in biomass growth, contributes to problematic ash chemistry and corrosion in combustion. This study seeks to examine the behaviour and fate of potassium in biomass combustion under high temperature flame conditions. A model to predict potassium release is presented. Short rotation willow coppice was treated to reduce metals, by water-washing, and remove them, by demineralisation, and then potassium was doped into the demineralised sample. The resultant fuels have been studied for their combustion behaviours in methane–air flames, both as suspended, moving particles, and as stationary, supported particles, using high speed digital video. In the latter case, potassium release was measured simultaneously by emission spectroscopy. In both experiments, potassium was seen to catalyse devolatilisation, and for the stationary particles it was possible to detect potassium catalysis in the char burn-out rates. Demineralised willow was seen to melt in the flame and combustion resembled heavy oil combustion, rather than solid fuel combustion. The residual char was extremely slow to burn-out. In the potassium-doped particles, potassium was seen to evolve over three regimes, devolatilisation, char burn-out and, less significantly, during ash cooking. The first two evolution processes have been modelled using an apparent first order devolatilisation rate for the first stage, and a KOH evaporation model for the second stage.     

煤粉炉内弥散介质辐射传热的综合模拟

本文基于辐射传热计算的DT法和颗粒运动计算的随机轨道法,并结合单颗粒的辐射特性模型,构造了能够详细考虑颗粒燃尽、湍流弥散诸因素对炉内空间局部辐射特性及总体辐射传热影响的弥散介质辐射传热计算模型,并将其耦合到炉内过程的总体数值模型中。采用该程序,比较计算了几种颗粒辐射特性模型对某300MW锅炉炉内温度场的预报结果,结果表明：通常采用的均匀颗粒辐射特性模型会导致温度场的极大误差;由于炉内颗粒浓度的不均匀分布,炉内的温度分布呈现高度非均匀状态,在炉膛轴线上有大面积的高温烟气区存在;考虑残炭存在时,温度分布的不均匀性更显著．     

含灰湿空气外掠翅片管束积灰和阻力特性实验研究

本文针对以褐煤预干燥乏气为代表的含灰含湿气体余热回收问题,采用含灰湿空气模拟真实干燥乏气/烟气,搭建了混合气体外掠圆形翅片管束对流冷凝实验系统,获得了灰分浓度、水蒸气质量分数、主流气体入口温度等因素对其积灰和阻力特性的影响规律.实验结果表明,阻力系数随着灰分浓度和气体入口温度的增加而增加,随水蒸气质量分数的增加而减小,...