甲烷/空气预混气体火焰的传播特征

利用高速纹影摄像等技术探讨了密闭管道内不同当量比的甲烷/空气预混气体火焰的传播特征。结果表明,当甲烷含量接近当量值时,预混气体火焰传播中会发生火焰阵面由向未燃区弯曲到向已燃区弯曲的转折过程,逐渐由层流燃烧转变成湍流燃烧,并形成Tulip火焰结构;当甲烷含量偏离当量值一定程度时,预混火焰呈现出典型的层流燃烧特征,不会发生火焰阵面由向未燃区弯曲到向已燃区弯曲的转折过程。Tulip火焰结构形成于火焰传播速度迅速降低的区间里,且只有当减速阶段的最大加速度的绝对值大于某一数值时才能形成;Tulip火焰结构是预混火焰由层流燃烧向湍流燃烧转变的一个中间过程。     

Effect of an inhibitor on high-speed turbulent flames and the transition to detonation

The influence of an inhibitor (CF₃Br or Halon 1301) on the propagation of high-speed turbulent flames, quasi-detonations and the transition to detonation has been investigated for methane-air, propane-air and acetylene-air mixtures. The experiments are carried out in a 13 m tube (15 cm diameter) filled with regularly spaced orifice plates (blockage ratio of 0.39) to ensure rapid flame acceleration. In all cases, the addition of the inhibitor reduces the turbulent flame velocity and extinguishes the flame with sufficient inhibitor concentration (2.7% and 7.5% for methane-air and propane-air, respectively). For acetylene-air mixtures, the quasi-detonation speed is progressively reduced with increasing inhibitor concentration and eventually causes the failure of the quasi-detonation and transition back to a fast turbulent flame. The inhibitor also narrows the propagation limits in all cases. To elucidate the inhibition mechanism, detailed modelling of both the turbulent flame structure as well as the chemical kinetics are required.     

LES/PDF Modeling of Turbulent Premixed Flames with Locally Enhanced Mixing by Reaction

Large-eddy simulations (LES) combined with the transported probability density function (PDF) method are carried out for two turbulent piloted premixed methane-air jet flames (flame F1 and flame F3) to assess the capability of LES/PDF for turbulent premixed combustion. The conventionally used model for the sub-filter scale mixing time-scale (or the mixing frequency) fails to capture the premixed flames correctly. This failure is expected to be caused by the lack of the sub-filter scale premixed flame propagation property in the sub-filter scale mixing process when the local flame front is under-resolved. It leads to slower turbulent premixed flame propagation and wider flame front. A new model for specifying the sub-filter scale mixing frequency is developed to account for the effect of sub-filter scale chemical reaction on mixing, based on past development of models for the sub-filter scale scalar dissipation rate in premixed combustion. The new model is assessed in the two turbulent premixed jet flames F1 and F3. Parametric studies are performed to examine the new model and its sensitivity when combined with the different mixing models. Significantly improved performance of the new mixing frequency model is observed to capture the premixed flame propagation reasonably, when compared with the conventional model. The sensitivity of the flame predictions is found be relatively weak to the different mixing models in conjunction with the new mixing frequency model.     

泄爆面积对甲烷-空气预混泄爆容器结构响应影响的实验研究

利用自主搭建的泄爆容器结构响应测试系统,开展了不同泄爆面积条件下甲烷-空气预混气体泄爆实验,结合振动加速度、内部超压、火焰演化和信号频率-时间分布等探究了泄爆面积对容器结构响应的影响特征及机制。研究发现:（1）容器振动加速度曲线和内部超压曲线具有相似的变化趋势,两者均存在双峰现象,且两者一一对应,但加速度峰值出现略迟;随着无量纲泄爆系数增大,第1个内部超压和加速度峰值主体为增大趋势,而第2个内部超压和加速度峰值的变化趋势为先减小后增大再减小;（2）火焰未到达泄爆口之前,上部的火焰平均速度随着无量纲泄爆系数增大而减小,无量纲泄爆系数较小时火焰较早从泄爆口喷出;（3）在当前实验条件下,当无量纲泄爆系数为25.00时,热声耦合现象最剧烈,表现为最大幅值的振动响应和最大能量的高频振荡,而随着无量纲泄爆系数进一步增大或者减小,热声耦合现象逐渐衰减。     

Flame Curvature Distribution in High Pressure Turbulent Bunsen Premixed Flames

The flame curvature statistics of turbulent premixed Bunsen flames have been analysed in this paper using a Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) database of turbulent Bunsen flames at ambient and elevated pressures. In order to be able to perform a large parametric study in terms of pressure, heat release parameter, turbulence conditions and nozzle diameter, a single step Arrhenius type irreversible chemistry has been used for the purpose of computational economy, where thermo-chemical parameters are adjusted to match the behavior of stoichiometric methane-air flames. This analysis focuses on the characterization of the local flame geometry in response to turbulence and hydro-dynamic instability. The shape of the flame front is found to be consistent with existing experimental data. Although the Darrieus Landau instability promotes cusp formation, a qualitatively similar flame morphology can be observed for hydro-dynamically stable flames. A criterion has been suggested for the curvature PDF to become negatively skewed.     

Leading-Edge Reaction Zones in Lifted-Jet Gas and Spray Flames

An investigation of the leading edge characteristics in lifted turbulent methane-air (gaseous) and ethanol-air (spray) diffusion flames is presented. Both combustion systems consist of a central nonpremixed fuel jet surrounded by low-speed air co-flow. Non-intrusive laser-based diagnostic techniques have been applied to each system to provide information regarding the behavior of the combustion structures and turbulent flow field in the regions of flame stabilization. Simultaneous sequential CH-PLIF/particle image velocimetry and CH-PLIF/Rayleigh scattering measurements are presented for the lifted gaseous flame. The CH-PLIF data for the lifted gas flame reveals the role that ``leading-edge' combustion plays as the stabilization mechanism in gaseous diffusion flames. This phenomenon, characterized by a fuel-lean premixed flame branch protruding radially outward at the flame base, permits partially premixed flame propagation against the incoming flow field. In contrast, the leading edge of the ethanol spray flame, examined using single-shot OH-PLIF imaging and smoke-based flow visualization, does not exhibit the same variety of leading-edge combustion structure, but instead develops a dual reaction zone structure as the liftoff height increases. This dual structure is a result of the partial evaporation (hence partial premixing) of the polydisperse spray and the enhanced rate of air entrainment with increased liftoff height (due to co-flow). The flame stabilizes in a region of the spray, near the edge, occupied by small fuel droplets and characterized by intense mixing due to the presence of turbulent structures. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Forced convective heat transfer from premixed flames —Part 2: Impingement heat transfer

A study of convective heat transfer from impinging flames is completed with the presentation of heat transfer rates measured in premixed methane-air flames. Unburnt gas equivalence ratios from 0.8 to 1.2 have been examined, with burner exit Reynolds numbers ranging from 2000 to 12 000. Heat fluxes measured at the stagnation point of a body of revolution and a circular cylinder demonstrate that the trends observed in measured heat flux profiles are mainly determined by variations in the mean velocity and temperature within a flame, with peak heat transfer rates occuring within or close to the flame reaction zone. Increases in Reynolds number lead to an increase in the peak heat flux attained within a flame and to a decrease in the axial extent of the flame equilibrium region. Variations in equivalence ratio away from approximately stoichiometric conditions lead to a decrease in the maximum rate of heat transfer from a flame and to a shifting of the position of maximum flux downstream. Theoretical predictions applicable to the equilibrium region of the flames are in reasonable accord with experimental data.     

气流特征对水平长管内石松子粉尘爆炸火焰结构的影响

为探索气流特征对水平长管内粉尘爆炸火焰结构的影响, 对采用加压送气传输方式形成的石松子粉尘云经静电引燃后其火焰在水平长管内的传播特性进行实验。利用热线风速仪测量不同气流条件下沿管径方向的速度分布和湍流强度分布, 采用高速摄像系统记录了火焰在水平管道内的传播过程。实验观察到, 即使管内石松子粉尘质量分数相同, 仍然会出现2种不同类型的火焰结构:一种类型火焰轮廓规则、清晰, 火焰中心为连续的黄色发光区并由红色边缘火焰包裹; 另一种类型火焰空间离散, 火焰发光区局部存在, 散乱地呈现不规则状态。详细分析不同气流条件对火焰结构的影响。     

Experimental investigation of dynamics of premixed acetylene–air flames in a micro-combustor

This paper describes a detailed experimental study performed to investigate the flame propagation behaviour of premixed flames in micro-channels. A novel, modular, stackable micro-combustor was developed for this purpose. For a chosen planar channel geometry, the flow condition and the mixture equivalence ratio of premixed acetylene–air were varied to investigate various modes of operation. Three different modes of operation were observed; they were (i) stable periodic operation – consisting of ignition, flame propagation, flame extinction, and re-ignition, (ii) a-periodic operation, and (iii) anchored flame condition. The present work also aims to provide quantitative information on the dynamics of premixed acetylene–air flames propagating inside micro-channels. A novel measurement approach based on OH^* chemiluminescence measurements employing a single photomultiplier unit was developed for this purpose. The data recorded were post processed using an in-house developed MATLAB code to evaluate the mean flame propagation speed measured between three different spatial locations along the length of the micro-channel. The results from the flame propagation speed measurements performed during ‘periodic’ mode of operation indicated that the flame travelled at higher propagation speed in the mid-length region of the channel compared to that at the initial entry point, suggesting flame acceleration. This flame acceleration could be attributed to a situation where the flame experienced different local equivalence ratio conditions at different upstream locations. The results suggest that after completion of a cycle of operation consisting of ignition, flame propagation and flame extinction, the fresh mixture that filled the channel was diluted with the exhaust gas from the previous cycle. This pocket of diluted mixture convected downstream with time, thus enabling the spatial variation in local equivalence ratio along the micro-channel.     

Flame Structure and Propagation in Turbulent Flame-Droplet Interaction: A Direct Numerical Simulation Analysis

Three-dimensional Direct Numerical Simulations (DNS) in canonical configuration have been employed to study the combustion of mono-disperse droplet-mist under turbulent flow conditions. A parametric study has been performed for a range of values of droplet equivalence ratio ?_d, droplet diameter a_d and root-mean-square value of turbulent velocity u^′. The fuel is supplied entirely in liquid phase such that the evaporation of the droplets gives rise to gaseous fuel which then facilitates flame propagation into the droplet-mist. The combustion process in gaseous phase takes place predominantly in fuel-lean mode even for ?_d>1. The probability of finding fuel-lean mixture increases with increasing initial droplet diameter because of slower evaporation of larger droplets. The chemical reaction is found to take place under both premixed and non-premixed modes of combustion: the premixed mode ocurring mainly under fuel-lean conditions and the non-premixed mode under stoichiometric or fuel-rich conditions. The prevalence of premixed combustion was seen to decrease with increasing droplet size. Furthermore, droplet-fuelled turbulent flames have been found to be thicker than the corresponding turbulent stoichiometric premixed flames and this thickening increases with increasing droplet diameter. The flame thickening in droplet cases has been explained in terms of normal strain rate induced by fluid motion and due to flame normal propagation arising from different components of displacement speed. The statistical behaviours of the effective normal strain rate and flame stretching have been analysed in detail and detailed physical explanations have been provided for the observed behaviour. It has been found that the droplet cases show higher probability of finding positive effective normal strain rate (i.e. combined contribution of fluid motion and flame propagation), and negative values of stretch rate than in the stoichiometric premixed flame under similar flow conditions, which are responsible for higher flame thickness and smaller flame area generation in droplet cases.     

Quantitative Analysis of Flame Instabilities in a Hele-Shaw Burner

We show in this paper that a Hele-Shaw burner can be used for studying the development of premixed flame instabilities in a quasi-two dimensional configuration. It is possible to ignite a plane flame at the top of the cell, and to measure quantitatively the growth rates of the instability by image analysis. Experiments are performed with propane and methane-air mixtures. It is found that the most unstable wavelength, and the maximum linear growth rate of perturbations, directly measured in the present experiments, have the same order of magnitude as those previously measured on flames propagating freely downwards in wide tubes.     

Global modelling of heat release during initiation and propagation of detonation and deflagration waves in methane-air-particle systems

In the present paper the direct initiation of a self supporting detonation and propagation of a low-speed combustion in methane-air-coal particles mixtures are solved. For particles, a heterogeneous regime of combustion is used, for methane one overall chemical reaction is taken into account: CH + 2O = CO + 2HO. The heat release rate is assumed to be defined as a delay time based on the well-known thermal theory of Frank-Kamenetsky (1967). The proposed model allows one to investigate the influence inert particles or coal dust on the explosion limits of methane-air mixtures. It is shown that the addition of a limited quantity of particles leads to detonation stability. In low speed combustion problems this method allows one to get a good correlation between theoretical and experimental velocities of steady flame propagation in carbon-hydrogen gaseous mixtures. Coal dust influence on gasdynamics of a methane-air mixture combustion is investigated in an unsteady problem by using of the global modelling. It is shown that limited coal dust concentration increases the flame wave intensity in lean methane-air mixtures in contrast to inert particles. In stoichiometric gas mixtures, sand and coal dusts decrease a flame velocity. Far from the ignition point flame, the velocity is largely defined by the dust mass concentration and not by the size of particles. Received 5 July 1997 / Accepted 13 July 1998     

Flow characterization of diffusion flame oscillations using particle image velocimetry

Particle image velocimetry (PIV) was used to measure velocity fields inside and around oscillating methane-air diffusion flames with a slot fuel orifice. PIV provided velocity and directional information of the flow field comprised of both the flame and air. From this, information on flow paths of entrained air into the flame were obtained and visualized. These show that at low fuel flow rates for which the oscillations were strongest, the responsible mechanism for the oscillating flow appeared to be the repetitive occurrence of flame quenching. PIV findings indicated that quenching appears to be associated primarily with air entrainment. Velocity was found to be considerably larger in regions where quenching occurred. The shedding of vortices in the shear layer occurs immediately outside the boundary of the flame envelope and was speculated to be the primary driving force for air entrainment.     

Measurement of propagation speeds in adiabatic cellular premixed flames of CH4 + O2 + CO2

Experimental measurements of the propagation speed of adiabatic flames of methane + oxygen + carbon dioxide are presented. The oxygen content O₂/(O₂ + CO₂) in the artificial air was 31.55% and 35%. Non-stretched flames were stabilized on a perforated plate burner at atmospheric pressure. A heat flux method was used to determine propagation speeds under conditions when the net heat loss of the flame is zero. Under specific experimental conditions the flames become cellular; this leads to significant modification of the flame propagation speed. The onset of cellularity was observed throughout the stoichiometric range of the mixtures studied. Measurements in cellular flames are presented and compared with those for laminar flat flames. Cellularity disappeared when the flames became only slightly sub-adiabatic. Visual and photographic observations of the flames were performed to quantify their cellular structure. Increasing the oxygen content in the artificial air and increasing the temperature of the burner plate led to increase of the number of cells observed.     

Lifted Diffusion Flame Stabilisation: Conditional Analysis of Multi-Parameter High-Repetition Rate Diagnostics at the Flame Base

Data from simultaneous 5?kHz OH-PLIF and Stereo-PIV at the stabilisation region of a propane/ argon lifted diffusion jet flame are presented for jet-exit Reynolds numbers of 10,000 and 15,000. The time history leading to the upstream appearance of flame islands is investigated for both flames. These flame islands are found to be preceded, on average, by a increased out-of-plane fluid velocity. Conditioning local flame statistics on the instantaneous flame base, as indicated by the OH image, permits analysis of upstream and downstream flame motions (in laboratory co-ordinates). The relative velocity is investigated by conditioning out the data with significant out-of-plane fluid velocity. This has introduced greater accuracy over previous attempts at estimating this quantity. No evidence is found for a correlation between increased turbulence intensity or the passage of large scale eddies with increased flame propagation speeds. Furthermore, divergence at the flame base is not found to correlate with upstream flame motion (as a combination of propagation and convection). The volume of the data investigated has led to the development of robust statistics for all quantities presented here.     

非金属粉末对方管内瓦斯预混火焰传播的影响

为研究非金属粉末对管内瓦斯预混火焰传播的影响,选用煤粉和石粉2类煤矿井下常见粉末,采用微细热电偶、火焰传感器测试得出内铺2种粉末管内瓦斯火焰传播的瞬态温度、火焰阵面位置及火焰传播速度等参数,初步分析2种粉末影响瓦斯火焰传播机制的不同。实验表明:(1)煤粉能够加速管内瓦斯火焰的传播,而石粉则抑制管内瓦斯火焰的传播,但两者影响机制有本质不同;(2)内铺煤粉时,火焰温度瞬时值曲线呈现出明显的双峰结构,反应区宽度增加,表明活性煤粉与瓦斯形成了瓦斯 煤粉复合火焰;(3)内铺石粉时,火焰温度值整体下降,温度半峰宽度变窄,说明撒布岩粉法能有效抑制瓦斯煤尘爆炸发生。     

Asymptotic analysis of outwardly propagating spherical flames

Asymptotic analysis is conducted for outwardly propagating spherical flames with large activation energy.The spherical flame structure consists of the preheat zone,reaction zone,and equilibrium zone.Analytical solutions are separately obtained in these three zones and then asymptotically matched.In the asymptotic analysis,we derive a correlation describing the spherical flame temperature and propagation speed changing with the flame radius.This correlation is compared with previous results derived in the limit of infinite value of activation energy.Based on this correlation,the properties of spherical flame propagation are investigated and the effects of Lewis number on spherical flame propagation speed and extinction stretch rate are assessed.Moreover,the accuracy and performance of different models used in the spherical flame method are examined.It is found that in order to get accurate laminar flame speed and Markstein length,non-linear models should be used.     

Experimental Characterization of Gelled Jet A1 Spray Flames

Gelled propellants provide energetic performance similar to conventional liquid propellants and safety during storage and handling like a solid propellant. Experiments on unconfined gelled Jet A1 spray flames and the comparison with ungelled spray flames are reported for the first time in this paper in terms of the global features, burning regimes, stability limits, visible flame height, emission spectra, natural luminosity, and CH ^? chemiluminescence. Propellants were atomized by an internally impinging two-fluid atomizer, developed specifically for efficient atomization of non-Newtonian gels. Swirling and non-swirling spray flames were successfully stabilized on a burner incorporating bluff body and annular jet of combustion air over a wide range of operating parameters. Structural features of the atomizer impart high momentum to the (central) spray jet, such that the recirculation zone could be penetrated under all conditions. Long-exposure smoke and high-speed visualizations were employed to study cold flow structures and droplet-vortex interactions. Short-exposure direct and backlit imaging were used to observe global features of spray flames. Stability limits and visible flame heights were mapped for different thermal inputs, swirl numbers, and flow rates of atomizing and combustion air jets. Non-swirling stable anchored, partially blown off, and neck-blown off flames were observed. Lifted, and a transition regime, in which the flame could burn in stable and lifted mode repetitively, were observed for the swirling flames. Interactions between central and annular jets are important in these regimes, determining flame shape, symmetry, and flame height. Jet-like propagation zone determines the flame height through its dependence on momentum of spray jet. The length of this zone is affected by variations in thermal input, gas-liquid ratio, and air-fuel ratio. The gelled Jet A1 flames are remarkably shorter despite having a larger average droplet size than ungelled Jet A1. This experimental observation directly supports theoretical predictions reported in literature. These flames are more luminous than ungelled Jet A1, especially at the base and the neck regions. While, majority of the heat is released in the jet-like propagation zone for both the flames, significant heat is released in the neck zone of ungelled Jet A1 spray flame in comparison to ungelled Jet A1 spray flame due to intense turbulence and smaller droplet size.     

Near-Equidiffusion Disturbed Premixed Flames with Wider Reaction Zones

Most of the asymptotic considerations of the interaction of premixed flames with a general flow, i.e. curved and stretched flames subjected to time dependent flow, are dedicated to high activation energy asymptotes. Therefore, in these considerations the reaction zone is thin and the temperature within the reaction zone is constant to the leading order of approximation. Here we consider an order unity activation energy for near-equidiffusion flames and show that the flame speed relations obtained are distinct from those obtained by high activation energy asymptotes. The flame is assumed to be thin in comparison with the flow scales but the reaction zone is no longer thin in comparison with the flame width. Although obtaining analytical solutions is problematic even for undisturbed flames with wide reaction zones, we found that the propagation speed of disturbed premixed flames with wide reaction zones is determined by analytical integrals involving the temperature profile of the undisturbed flame. We also found independent effects of curvature and stretch for the flames with wider reaction zones. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Flame-Flow Interaction in Premixed Turbulent Flames During Transient Head-On Quenching

This paper reports on experimental investigations of turbulent flame-wall interaction (FWI) during transient head-on quenching (HOQ) of premixed flames. The entire process, including flame-wall approach and flame quenching, was analyzed using high repetition rate particle image velocimetry (PIV) and simultaneous flame front tracking based on laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) of the OH molecule. The influence of convection upon flame structures and flow fields was analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively for the fuels methane (CH₄) and ethylene (C₂H₄) at ? = 1. For this transient FWI, flames were initialized by laser spark ignition 5 mm above the burner nozzle. Subsequently, flames propagated against a steel wall, located 32 mm above the burner nozzle, where they were eventually quenched in the HOQ regime due to enthalpy losses. Twenty ignition events were recorded and analyzed for each fuel. Quenching distances were 179 μm for CH₄ and 159 μm for C₂H₄, which lead by nondimensionalization with flame thickness to Peclet numbers of 3.1 and 5.5, respectively. Flame wrinkling and fresh gas velocity fluctuations proved flame and flow laminarization during wall approach. Velocity fluctuations cause flame wrinkling, which is higher for CH₄ than C₂H₄ despite lower velocity fluctuations. Lewis number effects explained this phenomenon. Results from flame propagation showed that convection dominates propagation far from the wall and differences in flame propagation are related to the different laminar flame speeds of the fuels. Close to the wall flames of both fuels propagate similarly, but experimental results clearly indicate a decrease in intrinsic flame speed. In general, the experimental results are in good agreement with other experimental studies and several numerical studies, which are mainly based on direct numerical simulations.