Methylazacalixpyridines: remarkable bridging nitrogen-tuned conformations and cavities with unique recognition properties

Methylazacalix[n]pyridines (n = 4, 8) and methylazacalix[m]arene[n]pyridines (m = n = 2, 4) have been synthesized by a convenient fragment coupling approach starting from 2,6-dibromopyridine, 2,6-diaminopyridine, and benzene-1,3-diamine. Thanks to the intrinsic electronic nature of nitrogen, which can adopt mainly sp(2) hybridization, allowing it variously to conjugate, partially conjugate, or not conjugate with the adjacent one or two pyridine rings, the resulting nitrogen-bridged calixpyridine derivatives act as a unique class of macrocyclic host molecules with intriguing conformational structures offering fine-tunable cavities and versatile recognition properties. Whilst in solution it is fluxional, in the solid state methylazacalix[4]pyridine adopts a 1,3-alternate conformation with a C(2v) symmetry in which every two bridging nitrogen atoms conjugate with one pyridine ring. After protonation, the methylazacalix[4]pyridinium species has a different conjugation system of its four bridging nitrogen atoms, yielding the similar twisted 1,3-alternate conformations with an approximate S(4) symmetry. The cavity of each protonated methylazacalix[4]pyridine, however, varies finely to accommodate guest species of different size and geometry, such as planar DMF or HO(2)CCO(2) (-) ion, a twisted HO(2)CCO(2) (-) ion, and a tetrahedral ClO(4) (-) ion. As giant macrocyclic hosts, both methylazacalix[8]pyridine and methylazacalix[4]arene[4]pyridine interact efficiently with fullerenes C(60) and C(70) through van der Waals forces. Their ease of preparation, versatile conformational structures, and recognition properties make these multinitrogen-containing calixarenes or cyclophanes unique and powerful macrocyclic hosts in supramolecular chemistry.     

基于Zn（Ⅱ）-甲基氮杂杯[4]吡啶复合物的氨基酸和阴离子识别

甲基氮杂杯[4]吡啶（MACP-4）是具有独特构象和空腔结构的大环主体分子在客体存在的情况下,它可以通过桥连氮原子的自调节作用而调节整个分子的空腔及构象,以实现对客体最大程度的识别作用.MACP-4对Zn^2＋具有选择性识别,无论是在固相还是溶液中,它都可以和Zn^2＋形成稳定的复合物（Zn（Ⅱ）-MACP-4）,结合常数可达5.97（logKs）.本文以Zn（Ⅱ）-MACP-4为主体,研究了其与17种氨基酸以及具有不同几何形状的阴离子的识别行为,结果Zn（Ⅱ）-MACP-4对17种氨基酸均具有不同程度的识别,结合常数最高可达3.97（logKs）,Zn（Ⅱ）-MACP-4对阴离子的识别具有选择性,其中对PF6-的识别作用最强,结合常数可达3.9（logKs）.     

Recognition of anions by protonated methylazacalixpyridines

Methylazacalixpyridines are a unique kind of macrocyclic molecules that are able to self-regulate their conformations to best fit the guests. They had shown good recognition to both neutral molecules such as diols and fullerenes and cations. After protonation, the conformation of methylazacalixpyridines became more flexible and could serve as receptors for anions. In the solution, the protonated methylazacalix[2]pyridine[2]arene formed complexes with halides yielding biding constants of 79 (mol/L)⁻¹ for chloride, 10 (mol/L)⁻¹ for bromide, and 79 (mol/L)⁻¹ for iodide, respectively. The crystal structures of the complexes between protonated methylazacalix[4]pyridine (MACP-4), methylazacalix[2]pyridine[2]arene (MACP-2-A-2), and iodide anion showed a multiple interaction mode including electrostatic attraction, hydrogen bonding, and anion-π interaction     

Recognition of amino acids and anions by a Zn(Ⅱ)-methylazacalix[4]pyridine complex

As a powerful macrocyclic host molecule with unique conformation and cavity structure that are fine-tuned by the bridging nitrogen atoms, methylazacalix[4]pyridine (MACP-4) has been shown to selectively recognize Zn2+ and form stable Zn(Ⅱ)-MACP-4 complexes both in solid state and solution with an association constant up to 5.97 (logKs). The molecular recognition of Zn(Ⅱ)-MACP-4 complexes towards various amino acids and anions with different geometry was investigated by using the spectral titration methods a...     

A PM3 Molecular Orbital Study on the Conformational Equilibrium of Cyclohexane upon α-Cyclodextrin Inclusion Complexation

The effect ofα-cyclodextrin (α-CD) inclusion complexation on the conformational equilibrium of cyclo- hexane wasstudied with thesemiempirical PM3 molecularorbital calculations. The calculation results indicated that the chair form of cyclohexane is 18.5 kJ·mol-1lower than that of boat one in energy, however, theα-cyclodextrin inclusion complex of boat cycl ohexane is 4.4 kJ·mol-1more stable than the complex of chair form. It demon-strated that the conformational equilibrium of cyclohexane was influenced by theα-CD inclusion complexation. Hence, caution should be given when extrapolating the conformational behaviors of the guest compounds in the supramolecular systems totheir free forms, since the interactionsbetween the host and guest significantly affect the conformation of the guest compounds.     

Molecular recognition thermodynamics of pyridine derivatives by sulfonatocalixarenes at different pH values

The complex stability constants (Ka) and thermodynamic parameters (DeltaG degrees, DeltaH degrees, and TDeltaS degrees) for 1:1 complexation of water-soluble calix[4]arene, thiacalix[4]arene, and calix[5]arene sulfonates with pyridine and their methylated derivatives have been determined by means of isothermal titration calorimetry at pH 2.0 and 7.2 at 298.15 K, and their binding modes have been investigated by NMR spectroscopy. The results obtained show that sulfonatocalixarenes afford stronger binding ability toward pyridine guests at pH 2.0, attributable to the positive electrostatic interactions and the more extensive desolvation effects, but present higher molecular selectivity at pH 7.2 owing to the strengthened C-H...pi interactions. The pH-responsible binding ability and molecular selectivity are discussed from the viewpoint of electrostatic, pi-stacking, van der Waals interactions and size-fit relationship between host and guest. A close comparison further demonstrates that the C-H...pi interactions and van der Waals interactions play a more important role than pi...pi interactions in the present inclusion complexation.     

Kinetic investigations of the process of encapsulation of small hydrocarbons into a cavitand-porphyrin

Exchange of guest molecules into capsule shaped host molecules is the most fundamental process in host-guest chemistry. Several examples of quantitative measurements of guest exchange rates have been reported. However, there have been no reports on the activation energies of these processes. A molecule known as cavitand-porphyrin (H2CP) has been reported to have a flexible host structure capable of facilitating moderate guest exchange rates suitable for kinetic measurements of the guest exchange process with 1H NMR. In this article, various kinetic and thermodynamic parameters related to the process of encapsulation of small hydrocarbons into H2CP in CDCl3 solution were determined by 2D exchange spectroscopy (EXSY): association and dissociation rate constants (k(ass) = 320 M-1 s-1, k(diss) = 1.4 s-1 for methane at 25 degrees C), the corresponding activation energies (E(a,ass) = 27 kJ.mol-1, E(a,diss) = 58 kJ.mol-1), and thermodynamic parameters for each process (DeltaG++(ass) = 59 kJ.mol-1, DeltaG++(diss) = 72 kJ.mol-1, DeltaH++(ass) = 25 kJ.mol-1, DeltaH++(diss) = 55 kJ.mol-1, DeltaS++(ass) = -113 J.K-1.mol-1, and DeltaH++(diss) = 58 J.K-1.mol-1 for methane). The thermodynamic parameters (DeltaG degrees = -13 kJ.mol-1, DeltaH degrees = -31 kJ.mol-1, DeltaS degrees = -60 J.K-1.mol-1 for methane) for this encapsulation equilibrium determined by EXSY were comparable to those for methane determined by 1D 1H NMR titration (DeltaG degrees = -11 kJ.mol-1, DeltaH degrees = -33 kJ.mol-1, DeltaS degrees = -75 J.K-1.mol-1 for methane). In addition, the structure of the methane encapsulation process was revealed by ab initio MO calculations. The activation energies for methane association/dissociation were estimated from MP2 calculations (E(a,ass) = 58.3 kJ.mol-1, E(a,diss) = 89.1 kJ.mol-1, and DeltaH degrees = -30.8 kJ.mol-1). These values are in accord with the experimentally determined values. The observed guest exchange rates and energies are compared with the corresponding values of various reported capsule-shaped hosts.     

Conformational analysis of indole alkaloids corynantheine and dihydrocorynantheine by dynamic 1H NMR spectroscopy and computational methods: steric effects of ethyl vs vinyl group

1H NMR (400 MHz) spectra of the indole alkaloid dihydrocorynantheine recorded at room temperature show the presence of two conformers near coalescence. Low temperature 1H NMR allowed characterization of the conformational equilibrium, which involves rotation of the 3-methoxypropenoate side chain. Line-shape analysis yielded enthalpy of activation DeltaH(double dagger) = 71 +/- 6 kJ/mol, and entropy of activation DeltaS(double dagger) = 33 +/- 6 J/mol.K. The major and minor conformation contains the methyl ether group above and below the plane of the ring, respectively, as determined by low-temperature NOESY spectra, with free energy difference DeltaG degrees = 1.1 kJ/mol at -40 degrees C. In contrast to dihydrocorynantheine, the corresponding rotamers of corynantheine are in the fast exchange limit at room temperature. The activation parameters determined for corynantheine were DeltaH(double dagger) = 60 +/- 6 kJ/mol and DeltaS(double dagger) = 24 +/- 6 J/mol.K, with DeltaG degrees = 1.3 kJ/mol at -45 degrees C. The difference in the exchange rates of the rotamers of corynantheine and dihydrocorynantheine (respectively, 350 s(-1) and 9 s(-1) at 0 degrees C) reflects the difference in the steric bulk of the vinyl and the ethyl group. The conformational equilibria involving the side chain rotation as well as inversion of the bridgehead nitrogen in corynantheine and dihydrocorynantheine was studied by force-field (Amber and MMFF) and ab initio (density-functional theory at the B3LYP/6-31G level) computational methods, the results of which were in good agreement with the 1H NMR data. However, the calculations identified the rotamers as essentially isoenergetic, the experimental energy differences being to small to be reproduced exactly by the theory. Comparison of density-functional and force-field calculations with experimental results identified Amber as giving the most accurate results in the present case.     

A 3-fold "butterfly valve" in command of the encapsulation's kinetic stability. Molecular baskets at work

Molecular basket 1, composed of a semirigid tris-norbornadiene framework and three revolving pyridine-based gates at the rim, has been built to "dynamically" enclose space and as such regulate molecular encapsulation. The gates were shown to fold via intramolecular hydrogen bonding and thereby form a C3nu symmetrical receptor: the 1H NMR resonance for the amide N-H protons of the pyridine gates appeared downfield (delta= 10.98 ppm), and the N-H vibrational stretch (IR) was observed at 3176 cm(-1). Accordingly, density functional theory (DFT, B3LYP) investigations revealed for the closed conformers of 1 to be energetically the most stable and dominant. The gearing of the pyridine "gates", about their axis, led to the interconversion of two dynamic enantiomers 1A and 1B comprising the clockwise and counterclockwise seam of intramolecular hydrogen bonds. Dynamic 1H NMR spectroscopic measurements and line-shape simulations suggested that the energy barrier of 10.0 kcal/mol (DeltaG++(A/B), 298 K) is required for the 1A/B interconversion, when CCl4 occupies the cavity of 1. Likewise, the activation free energy for CCl4 departing the basket was found to be 13.1 kcal/mol (DeltaG++, 298 K), whereas the thermodynamic stability of 1:CCl4 complex was -2.7 kcal/mol (DeltaGdegrees, 298 K). In view of that, CCl4 (but also (CH3)3CBr) was proposed to escape from, and a molecule of solvent to enter, the basket when the gates rotate about their axis: the exit of CCl4 requires the activation energy of 12.7 kcal/mol (DeltaG++(A/B) + DeltaGdegrees), similar to the experimentally found 13.1 kcal/mol (DeltaG++).     

Trianglamines--readily prepared, conformationally flexible inclusion-forming chiral hexamines

Trianglamines, macrocyclic heteraphanes, were readily synthesised through a [3+3] cyclocondensation of (R,R)-1,2-diaminocyclohexane with terephthalaldehyde, followed by NaBH4 reduction and N-alkylation. The macrocyclic ring shows a remarkable ability to change its conformation, as a consequence of rotation about the C-N bonds or nitrogen inversion due to protonation or N-alkylation, as revealed by circular dichroism spectra, computational modelling and X-ray diffraction analysis. The flexible natures of the trianglamine macrocycles allow ready accommodation of a variety of guest molecules to form crystalline inclusion complexes of highly diversified interpenetrating structures.     

Self-assembly and selective guest binding of three-dimensional open-framework solids from a macrocyclic complex as a trifunctional metal building block

The nickel(II) hexaazamacrocyclic complex (1) containing pendant pyridine groups has been synthesized by the one-pot template condensation reaction of amine and formaldehyde. From the self-assembly of 1 with deprotonated cis,cis-1,3,5-cyclohexanetricarboxylic acid, H2CTC- and CTC3-, three-dimensional supramolecular open-frameworks of [Ni(C20H32N8)][C6H9(COOH)2(COO)]2 x 4H2O (2) and [Ni(C20H32N8)]3[C6H9(COO)3]2 x 16H2O (3), respectively, have been constructed. The solids 2 and 3 are insoluble in all solvents. X-ray crystal structure of 2 indicates that each nickel(II) macrocyclic complex binds two H2CTC- ions in trans position and two pendant pyridine groups of the macrocyclic complex are involved in hydrogen-bonding interactions with the hydroxy groups of H2CTC- belonging to the neighboring macrocyclic complexes, which provides the beltlike one-dimensional chain composed of rectangular synthons. The one-dimensional chains are linked together through lattice water molecules by the hydrogen-bonding interactions to generate two-dimensional networks, which are again connected to each other by the offset pi-pi stacking interactions between the pendant pyridine rings to give rise to a three-dimensional structure in which channels are present. The X-ray crystal structure of 3 indicates that each nickel(II) macrocyclic unit binds two CTC3- ions in trans position and each CTC3- ion coordinates three nickel(II) macrocyclic complexes to form a two-dimensional layer, in which pendant pyridine rings are involved in the hydrogen bonding and the herringbone pi-pi interaction. Between the layers, the pendant pyridine rings belonging to the neighboring layers participate in the offset pi-pi stacking interactions, which gives rise to a three-dimensional network structure. The network creates channels running parallel to the a, b, and c axes, which are filled with guest water molecules. The X-ray powder diffraction patterns indicate that the frameworks of 2 and 3 are deformed upon removal of water guests but restored upon rebinding of water. The host solids 2 and 3 bind [Cu(NH3)4](ClO4)2 in MeCN with a binding constant (Kf) of 210 M(-1) and 710 M(-1), respectively, while they do not bind [Cu(en)2](ClO4)2 (en = ethylenediamine). The dried solids of 2 and 3 do not interact with benzene and toluene, but they differentiate methanol, ethanol, and phenol in toluene solvent with the Kf values of 42, 14, and 12 M(-1), respectively, for 2, and 13, 8.2, and 8.9 M(-1), respectively, for 3. In terms of binding sites for guest molecules, the solid 3 has greater capacity than the solid 2.     

Insights into the binding properties of a cuprous ion embedded in the tren cap of a calix[6]arene and supramolecular trapping of an intermediate

Coordination of Cu(I) to a tren unit that is covalently linked to a calix[6]arene has been explored. The resulting complex revealed itself very stable in solution under an inert atmosphere, but extremely sensitive to O2 in solution as well as in the solid state. Therefore, its binding properties towards non-redox ligands have been studied in detail. The electron-rich metal center displays moderate affinity for nitrilo ligands compared to the calix[6]tris-pyridine ligand. Indeed, the binding enthalpy with acetonitrile is only -30 kJ mol(-1), whereas it is -72 kJ mol(-1) with the tris-pyridine system. In contrast, CO binding is relatively strong due to important pi-back donation from the metal center, as evidenced by the CO stretch, which was found to be less energetic (2075 cm(-1)) than that measured for ligands based on aromatic donors such as imidazole or pyridine. The conformational and dynamic properties of this calix-system have also been studied in detail. With an empty cavity or with the very small CO guest-ligand, the calix-core undergoes partial self-inclusion leading to dissymmetrical conformations. In contrast, nitrilo ligands act as "shoe-trees" that maintain the calix-core in a C(3v) symmetrical cone conformation. Very interestingly, the variable T study relative to the ligand exchange process highlighted a two-step dissociative pathway, where Cu-N bond cleavage/formation is differentiated from the nitrilo guest expulsion/inclusion from/into the calixarene cavity.     

Studies on the interaction between docetaxel and human hemoglobin by spectroscopic analysis and molecular docking

The binding reaction between docetaxel (DTX) and human hemoglobin (HHb) was investigated systematically with various spectroscopic methods including fluorescence quenching technique, ultraviolet (UV)-vis absorption, synchronous fluorescence, circular dichroism (CD) and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. Analysis of fluorescence data showed that the quenching mechanism was the dynamic quenching and each protein had only one binding site for the drug. Two thermodynamic parameters, the enthalpy change and the entropy change were calculated to be 9.18 kJ mol(-1) and 116J mol(-1) K(-1), respectively, which suggested that hydrophobic interaction played a major role in the binding reaction. The results from different spectroscopic methods also showed that DTX could induce conformational changes of HHb. The molecular docking simulation demonstrated that DTX was located in the central cavity of HHb.     

Selective guest encapsulation by a cobalt-assembled cage molecule

Metal-assembled resorcinarene-based cages enclose space and entrap organic molecules from water. Addition of cobalt(II) ions to a neutral, aqueous solution of a resorcinarene that has iminodiacetic acids attached to its upper rim results in the formation of cages. These cages not only entrap organic molecules, but they do so in a selective manner. Guests with optimum size, shape, and polarity are preferentially entrapped. For example, selection of p-xylene is twenty thousand times more favorable than that of m-xylene. The enthalpy of resorcinarene deprotonation and cage formation was calculated by performing calorimetry studies and ranged from -305 to -348 kJ mol(-1). The change in enthalpy of guest encapsulation varied by as much as 43 kJ mol(-1). The differences in change in free energy of guest encapsulation varied by -16 kJ mol(-1). The changes in enthalpy and free energy of guest encapsulation were used to calculate the changes in entropy, which ranged from -97 to +37 J mol(-1) K(-1). An enthalpy-entropy compensation of guest encapsulation was observed.     

Synthesis,Structures, and Complexation with Phenolic Guests of Acridone-Incorporated Arylene–Ethynylene Macrocyclic Compounds

Acridone units were incorporated into the arylene–ethynylene structure as polar arene units. Cyclic trimers consisting of three acridone-2,7-diyl units and three 1,3-phenylene units were synthesized by Sonogashira couplings via stepwise or direct route. X-ray analysis revealed that the trimer had a nearly planar macrocyclic framework with a cavity surrounded by three carbonyl groups. In contrast, the corresponding tetramer had a nonplanar macrocyclic framework. ¹H NMR measurements showed that the trimer formed a 1 : 1 complex as a macrocyclic host with dihydric phenol guests, and the association constants were determined to be ca. 1.0×10³ L mol⁻¹ for hydroquinone or resorcinol guests in CDCl₃ at 298 K. The calculated structures of these complexes by the DFT method supported the presence of two sets of OH⋅⋅⋅O=C hydrogen bonds between the host and guest molecules. The spectroscopic data of the cyclic trimers and tetramers are compared with those of reference acridone compounds.     

Effect of solvation on induce-fit molecular recognition in supercritical fluid to organic crystals immobilized on a quartz crystal microbalance.

The inclusion behavior of guest molecules to a solid apohost of an orthogonal anthracene-bis(resorcinol)tetraol (1) was investigated in supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO(2)) by using a 9 MHz quartz-crystal microbalance (QCM). Compound 1 forms crystals composed of molecular-sheet bound together by an extensive hydrogen-bonded network. The selective binding of gaseous ethyl acetate to the apohost-immobilized QCM in scCO(2) was observed, and the inclusion amount of ethyl acetate showed a drastic increase above a threshold concentration, [Guest](th) = 0.08 M, and the apparent Gibbs' free energy for the binding was DeltaG(app) = -1.3 kcal mol(-1). Similar selective bindings of ethyl acetate or ethanol had been observed in the gas phase and in water: [Guest](th) = 0.002 M with DeltaG(app) = -3.5 kcal mol(-1) and [Guest](th) = 0.5 M with DeltaG(app) = -0.41 kcal mol(-1), respectively. These values obtained in scCO(2) were intermediate between those in the gas and water phases. Since various physical properties (viscosity, density, polarity, diffusion constant, and solvation) of supercritical fluid are known to be intermediate between gas and liquid, these values clearly reflect the solvation behavior of guest molecules. Thus, the lower solvation of guest molecules indicates the lower threshold concentration and the larger binding energy in the following order: in air > in scCO(2) > in water.     

One-step template-directed synthesis of a macrocyclic tetraarylporphyrin hexamer based on supramolecular interactions with a C3-symmetric tetraarylporphyrin trimer

Taking into consideration the model geometry of the macrocyclic hexaporphyrin 1 as a host molecule, the structure of a benzene-centered porphyrin trimer bearing pyridine rings at the apical positions has been designed with the aim to use the latter as a template for the synthesis of its own host. Indeed, in the presence of the porphyrin trimer 5, the yield of the cyclization of a linear porphyrin hexamer, as a precursor of 1, could be improved from 8 to 30% (variable yield) to 50% (reproducible yield). Even the condensation of equimolecular amounts of porphyrin monomers 20b and 21b in the presence of 5 led--probably through a loose preorganized complex between the latter and the Zn(II) chelate 20b--to the formation of 1 in only five steps from 19, as compared with 13 steps of the synthesis via linear porphyrin hexamer in the absence of template. As evidenced by 1H NMR spectroscopic analysis of the supramolecular complex between 5 and an analogue of 1b in which all H-atoms at the pyrrole rings have been replaced by deuterium, in the presence of unlabeled 1b, a rapid dissociation and recombination of the host and guest molecules forming the supramolecular complex takes place even at low temperature (-40 degrees C). As at 55 degrees C all six Zn(II) porphyrinate rings of the complex 1b + 5 become magnetically equivalent in the 500 MHz 1H NMR time scale, approximate kinetic data for the ligand exchange process could be obtained.     

Crown ether appended cyclam receptors for cationic guests

A series of crown ether appended macrocyclic amines has been prepared comprising benzo-12-crown-4, benzo-15-crown-5, or benzo-18-crown-6 attached to a diamino-substituted cyclam. The Co(III) complexes of these three receptors have been prepared and characterized spectroscopically and structurally. Crystal structures of each receptor in complex with an alkali metal ion and structures of the benzo-12-crown-4 and benzo-15-crown-5-receptors without guest ions are reported. 2D NMR and molecular mechanics modeling have been used to examine conformational variations upon guest ion complexation. Addition of cations to these receptors results in an appreciable anodic shift in the Co(III/II) redox potential, even in aqueous solution, but little cation selectivity is observed. Evidence for complex formation has been corroborated by (23)Na and (7)Li NMR spectroscopy and electrospray mass spectrometry.     

Dynamics in host-guest complexes of molecular tweezers and clips

The dynamics in the host-guest complexes of the molecular tweezers 1 a,b and clips 2 a,b with 1,2,4,5-tetracyanobenzene (TCNB, 3) and tropylium tetrafluoroborate (4) as guest molecules were analyzed by temperature-dependent 1H NMR spectroscopy. The TCNB complexes of tweezers 1 a,b were found to be particularly stable (dissociation barrier: DeltaG(++)=16.8 and 15.7 kcal mol(-1), respectively), more stable than the TCNB complexes of clips 2 a,b and the tropylium complex of tweezer 1 b (dissociation barrier: DeltaG(++)=12.4, 11.2, and 12.3 kcal mol(-1), respectively). A detailed analysis of the kinetic and thermodynamic data (especially the negative entropies of activation found for complex dissociation) suggests that in the transition state of dissociation the guest molecule is still clipped between the aromatic tips of the host molecule. The 1H NMR analysis of the TCNB complexes 3@1 b and 3@2 a at low temperatures (T<-80 degrees C) showed that 3 undergoes fast rotation inside the cavity of tweezer 1 b or clip 2 a (rotational barrier: DeltaG( not equal)=11.7 and 8.3 kcal mol(-1), respectively). This rotation of a guest molecule inside the host cavity can be considered to be the dynamic equilibration of noncovalent conformers. In the case of clip complex 3@2 a the association and rotational barriers are smaller by DeltaDeltaG(++)=3-4 kcal mol(-1) than those in tweezer complexes 3@1 a,b. This can be explained by the more open topology of the trimethylene-bridged clips compared to the tetramethylene-bridged tweezers. Finally, the bromo substituents in the newly prepared clip 2 b have a substantial effect on the kinetics and thermodynamics of complex formation. Clip 2 b forms weaker complexes with (TCNB, 3) and tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ, 12) and a more stable complex with 2,4,7-trinitrofluoren-9-ylidene (TNF, 13) than the parent clip 2 a. These results can be explained by a less negative electrostatic potential surface (EPS) inside the cavity and a larger van der Waals contact surface of 2 b compared to 2 a. In the case of the highly electron-deficient guest molecules TCNB and TCNQ the attractive electrostatic interaction is predominant and hence responsible for the thermodynamic complex stability, whereas in the case of TNF with its extended pi system, dispersion forces are more important for host-guest binding.     

Interactions of cholesterol with cyclodextrins in aqueous solution

The interaction of cholesterol with several cyclodextrins (CDs) was investigated in water using solubility method. It was found that heptakis (2,6-di-O-methyl)-beta-CD (DOM-beta-CD) forms two types of soluble complex, with molar ratios of 1 : 1 and 1 : 2 (cholesterol : DOM-beta-CD), and neither a soluble nor insoluble complex is formed between cholesterol and alpha-CD, beta-CD, and gamma-CD, although a minor soluble complex formation was observed between cholesterol and 2-hydroxylpropyl-beta-CD. The thermodynamic parameters for 1 : 1 and 1 : 2 complex formation of cholesterol with DOM-beta-CD obtained from the changes in K with temperature are as follows: DeltaG degrees (1 : 1)=-11.6 kJ/mol at 25 degrees C (K(1 : 1)=1.09x10(2) M(-1)); DeltaH degrees (1 : 1)=-3.38 kJ/mol; TDeltaS degrees (1 : 1)=8.25 kJ/mol; DeltaG degrees (1 : 2)=-27.1 kJ/mol at 25 degrees C (K(1 : 2)=5.68x10(4) M(-1)); DeltaH degrees (1 : 2)=-3.96 kJ/mol; and TDeltaS degrees (1 : 2)=23.2 kJ/mol. The formation of the 1 : 2 complex occurred much more easily than that of the 1 : 1 complex. The driving force for 1 : 1 and 1 : 2 complex formation was considered to be mainly hydrophobic interaction. Also, based on the measurements of proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectra and studies with Corey-Pauling-Koltun atomic models, the probable structutures of the 1 : 2 complex were estimated.