Synthesis of functionalized, unsymmetrical 1,3,4,6-tetrasubstituted 2,5-diketopiperazines

A general and efficient method for the synthesis of unsymmetrical 1,3,4,6-tetrasubstituted 2,5-diketo- piperazines (DKPs) is described. Cyclization of N-amide alkylated dipeptide methyl esters, followed by alkylation, furnished the corresponding tetrasubstituted DKPs in good overall yields. The influence of steric hindrance in the alkylation reactions appeared to be of lesser importance as long as reactive alkylating agents were used. Furthermore, we have demonstrated the use of tetrasubstituted DKPs as a scaffold for further chemical manipulations to produce novel DKPs with desired properties.     

Microwave-assisted solid-phase synthesis of 2,5-diketopiperazines: solvent and resin dependence

Solid-phase synthesis of diketopiperazines (DKPs) was preformed using various combinations of resins (polystyrene, TentaGel, ArgoGel, and PEGA) and solvents (toluene, tert-butyl alcohol, water, and toluene/2-butanol (1:4, v/v). The DKPs were synthesized from solid-phase bound dipeptides via intramolecular aminolysis. Both thermal and microwave-assisted solid-phase synthesis of DKPs gave high yields of products independently of resin and organic solvent used; however, only the PEGA resin resulted in high yields of DKPs in water independent of heating method. The short reaction times, high yields, and the possibility to run reactions in water when an appropriate resin is used makes the microwave-assisted solid-phase synthesis the method of choice. The method should be suitable for solid-phase synthesis of diketopiperazine-based libraries.     

Efficient synthesis of 2,5-diketopiperazines using microwave assisted heating

In this study a general, efficient and environmentally benign solution phase synthesis of 2,5-diketopiperazines (DKPs) using microwave assisted heating in water is described. A series of 11 structurally different DKPs have been synthesized from dipeptide methyl esters. A range of common laboratory solvents have been tested as well as different reaction times and temperatures. Both classic thermal and microwave assisted heating have been investigated. Microwave assisted heating for 10 min using water as solvent proved, by far, to be the most efficient method of cyclization giving moderate to excellent yields (63-97%) of DKPs. In contrast to other published procedures, this method seems independent of the amino acid sequence.     

Studies towards complex bridged alkaloids: regio- and stereocontrolled enolate chemistry of 2,5-diketopiperazines

The substitution of symmetrical N-protected diketopiperazines (DKPs) via enolate intermediates has been studied. The enolate reactions were highly diastereocontrolled, leading to enantiopure DKP products if chiral amino acid precursors were employed, and giving racemic products, starting with centrosymmetric DKPs, even when a chiral lithium amide base was used to generate the lithium enolate. With unsymmetrical DKPs derived from proline and either alanine, phenylalanine or valine, the enolate substitution occurred with high regio- and stereoselectivity on the proline residue. This enabled the synthesis of substituted DKPs that could be cyclised via cationic processes to give the bicyclo[2.2.2]diazaoctane core structure present in paraherquamide and stephacidin natural products.     

Synthesis towards complex bridged alkaloids derived from diketopiperazines: a cationic cascade approach to stephacidins, paraherquamides and related systems

Regioselective enolate formation, followed by stereoselective electrophilic quenching of unsymmetrical proline-derived diketopiperazines (DKPs), enabled the synthesis of variously substituted DKPs, including one substrate which could be further substituted and cyclised to give the bicyclo[2.2.2]diazaoctane core structure present in paraherquamide and stephacidin natural products.     

Incorporation of Non‐canonical Amino Acids into 2,5‐Diketopiperazines by Cyclodipeptide Synthases

The manipulation of natural product biosynthetic pathways is a powerful means of expanding the chemical diversity of bioactive molecules. 2,5‐diketopiperazines (2,5‐DKPs) have been widely developed by medicinal chemists, but their biological production is yet to be exploited. We introduce an in vivo method for incorporating non‐canonical amino acids (ncAAs) into 2,5‐DKPs using cyclodipeptide synthases (CDPSs), the enzymes responsible for scaffold assembly in many 2,5‐DKP biosynthetic pathways. CDPSs use aminoacyl‐tRNAs as substrates. We exploited the natural ability of aminoacyl‐tRNA synthetases to load ncAAs onto tRNAs. We found 26 ncAAs to be usable as substrates by CDPSs, leading to the enzymatic production of approximately 200 non‐canonical cyclodipeptides. CDPSs constitute an efficient enzymatic tool for the synthesis of highly diverse 2,5‐DKPs. Such diversity could be further expanded, for example, by using various cyclodipeptide‐tailoring enzymes found in 2,5‐DKP biosynthetic pathways.     

Influence of Open Chain and Cyclic Structure of Peptidomimetics on Antibacterial Activity in E. coli Strains

An efficient method for the synthesis of functionalized peptidomimetics via multicomponent Ugi reaction has been developed. The application of trifluoroethanol (TFE) as a reaction medium provided desired products with good yields. Further, using the developed cyclisation reaction, the obtained peptidomimetics were transformed into the cyclic analogues (diketopiperazines, DKPs). The goal of the performed studies was to revised and compare whether the structure of the obtained structurally flexible acyclic peptidomimetics and their rigid cycling analogue DKPs affect antimicrobial activity. We studied the potential of synthesized peptidomimetics, both cyclic and acyclic, as antimicrobial drugs on model E. coli bacteria strains (k12, R2–R4). The biological assays reveal that DKPs hold more potential as antimicrobial drugs compared to open chain Ugi peptidomimetics. We believe that it can be due to the rigid cyclic structure of DKPs which promotes the membrane penetration in the cell of studied pathogens. The obtained data clearly indicate the high antibiotic potential of synthesized diketopiperazine derivatives over tested antibiotics.     

Solid-phase synthesis and structural characterization of highly substituted hydroxyproline-based 2,5-diketopiperazines

Two general solid-phase methods for the synthesis of a new class of 2,5-diketopiperazines (DKPs) containing the trans-4-hydroxy-L-proline amino acid residue (Hyp) have been developed. An N-protected hydroxyproline methyl ester was linked through the hydroxyl function to the Ellman resin. The synthesis procedures were conceived to enable a sequence of Hyp alkylation, Hyp N-acylation, cyclization, and amide bond alkylation. Up to three different centers of molecular diversity were introduced around the DKP scaffold. Highly functionalized bicyclic compounds were obtained in good yield and purity. The alkylation of hydroxyproline alpha CH was performed without control of the diastereoselectivity. During the final alkylation of the backbone, amide bond epimerization at the alpha-carbon atoms of the two amino acid residues was observed. The structures of representative DKPs were elucidated with multidimensional NMR experiments. The described reaction pathways can be applied to the identification of heterocyclic molecule inhibitors to diverse enzyme targets.     

Synthesis of tryptophan-containing 2,5-diketopiperazines via sequential C–H activation: total syntheses of tryprostatin A,maremycins A and B

Indole 2,5-diketopiperazines (DKPs) are an important type of metabolic cyclic dipeptides containing a tryptophan (Trp) unit possessing a range of interesting biological activities. The intriguing structural features and divergent activities have stimulated tremendous efforts towards their efficient synthesis. Herein, we report the development of a unified strategy for the synthesis of three Trp-containing DKPs, namely tryprostatin A, and maremycins A and B, via a sequential C–H activation strategy. The key Trp skeletons were synthesized from the inexpensive, readily available alanine via a Pd(ii)-catalyzed β-methyl C(sp³)–H monoarylation. A subsequent C2-selective prenylation of the resulting 6-OMe-Trp by Pd/norbornene-promoted C–H activation led to the total synthesis of tryprostatin A in 12 linear steps from alanine with 25% overall yield. Meanwhile, total syntheses of maremycins A and B were successfully accomplished using a sequential Pd-catalyzed methylene C(sp³)–H methylation as the key step in 15 linear steps from alanine.

Indole 2,5-diketopiperazines (DKPs) are an important type of metabolic cyclic dipeptides containing a tryptophan (Trp) unit possessing a range of interesting biological activities.     

Synthesis of Bridged Diketopiperazines by Using the Persistent Radical Effect and a Formal Synthesis of Bicyclomycin

A conceptually new and unified approach to diverse bridged diketopiperazines (DKPs) with widely variable ring sizes was developed by taking advantage of the persistent radical effect. This method enables synthesis of the core structures of bridged DKP alkaloids and was applied to a formal synthesis of the antibiotic bicyclomycin.     

Diketopiperazine Gels: New Horizons from the Self-Assembly of Cyclic Dipeptides

Cyclodipeptides (CDPs) or 2,5-diketopiperazines (DKPs) can exert a variety of biological activities and display pronounced resistance against enzymatic hydrolysis as well as a propensity towards self-assembly into gels, relative to the linear-dipeptide counterparts. They have attracted great interest in a variety of fields spanning from functional materials to drug discovery. This concise review will analyze the latest advancements in their synthesis, self-assembly into gels, and their more innovative applications.     

Fragmentation of diketopiperazines from Aspergillus fumigatus by electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS)

Diketopiperazines (DKPs) corresponding to cyclic dipeptides have been reported to exhibit antimicrobial, antitumor, antimutagenic and antiviral properties. These compounds are commonly isolated from microorganisms and sponges and from a variety of tissues and body fluids. In this work, we used electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS) to investigate the fragmentation of a series of DKPs previously isolated from Aspergillus fumigatus, which exhibit the same structural core. Loss of CO directly from the protonated molecule was found to be a fragmentation process common to all the compounds analyzed. However, our results revealed a series of ions that are diagnostic for the substituents at C(4) and C(9). In order to rationalize the differences in the fragmentation pathways of substituted and nonsubstituted DKPs, the relative Gibbs energies (DeltaG) of the product ions and intermediate ions were estimated using the B3LYP/6-31 + + G(d,p) model. The data reported here can be used for the structural elucidation of DKPs from low sample amounts, as an alternative to NMR.     

On-beads screening of solid-attached diketopiperazines for calix[5]arene-based receptor

On-beads binding studies of solid-bound DKPs to the calix[5]arene-based receptor were achieved. The results of the binding abilities of the DKPs to the receptor are quite consistent with the binding constants determined by the solution titration studies.     

Modification of proline‐based 2,5‐diketopiperazines by anionic ring‐opening polymerization

2,5‐Diketopiperazines (DKPs) are the smallest cyclic dipeptides found in nature with various attractive properties. In this study, we have demonstrated the successful modification of proline‐based DKPs using anionic ring‐opening polymerization (AROP) as a direct approach. Four different proline‐based DKPs with various side chains and increasing steric hindrance were used as initiating species for the polymerization of 1,2‐epoxybutane or ethoxyethyl glycidyl ether in the presence of t‐BuP₄ phosphazene base. The addition of a Lewis acid, tri‐isobutyl aluminum, to the reaction mixture strongly decreased the occurrence of side reactions. Impact of the DKP side‐chain functionalities on molar mass control and dispersity was successfully evidenced. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Polym. Sci., Part A: Polym. Chem. 2019 , 57, 1008–1016     

秸秆含氮模型化合物热解氮转化规律的实验研究

采用TG-FTIR联用实验系统,在氩气氛围下研究了含氮模型化合物甘氨酸酐热解失重特性以及NO_x前驱物的释放特性;研究了K、Ca、Fe金属盐对甘氨酸酐热解氮转化的影响。结果表明,在20、40、60℃/min升温速率下,NH₃、HCN、HNCO为甘氨酸酐热解的主要气相含氮产物,其中,NH₃产率最大,HCN次之,HNCO生成量最小;随升温速率增加,TG失重曲线右移,热解剩余物减少;且HCN和HNCO的产率增加,NH₃产率降低;K、Ca、Fe盐均对甘氨酸酐热解氮转化具有催化作用,其中,K、Ca有利于促进NH₃、HCN的生成,Fe对HCN的生成具有促进作用,但对NH₃的生成起到抑制作用。     

Determination of diketopiperazines of Burkholderia cepacia CF-66 by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

Bacteria communicate with each other by a process termed “quorum sensing” (QS), and diffusible, low-molecular-weight chemicals, called signal molecules, are used as the communication languages. In cell-free Burkholderia cepacia CF-66 culture supernatants, five compounds suspected of being signal molecules were identified. The gene (cepI) related with AHLs synthesis were not detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using specific primers. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) revealed that these compounds were not AHLs but the diketopiperazines (DKPs) cyclo(Pro–Phe), cyclo(Pro–Tyr), cyclo(Ala–Val), cyclo(Pro–Leu), and cyclo(Pro–Val), all of which were both d and l-type. Four kinds of DKPs had been isolated from other Gram-negative bacteria, but the other was a novel kind discovered in CF-66, and l-cyclo (Pro–Phe) was quantified by GC–MS. It was found that exogenous DKPs had a negative effect on the candidacidal activity of the culture supernatant extracts.     

Solvent-Free Synthesis of Nitrilotriacetamide and Diketopiperazines from Nitrilotriacetic Acid under Microwave Irradiation and Their Antimicrobial Activity

Efficient synthesis of dioxopiperazines‐diketopiperzines (DKPs)‐ and amide from nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) using microwave irradiation and classical heating were described. All compounds were characterized using ¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR and elemental analysis. Antimicrobial effects of these compounds are also investigated. All tested compounds showed moderate antimicrobial activity.     

Highly diastereoselective desymmetrizations of cyclo(Pro,Pro): an enantioselective strategy toward phakellstatin and phakellin

[reaction: see text] Monoenolates of C(2)-symmetric, proline-derived piperazine-2,5-diones were generated and trapped with a variety of electrophiles to produce, in a highly diastereoselective fashion, functionalized diketopiperazines (DKPs). These reactions provide the basis for an asymmetric, desymmetrization strategy toward the marine alkaloids phakellstatin and phakellin. The relative stereochemistry of the functionalized DKPs was confirmed by single-crystal X-ray analysis and/or NOE experiments. Bis-functionalization of the DKPs was also found to proceed with high levels of diastereoselectivity.     

A convenient strategy of dimerization by microwave heating and using 2,5-diketopiperazine as scaffold

A novel and convenient microwave-assisted dimerization of an active peptide compound using the DKPs as scaffold is described. The key reaction giving rise to the diketopiperazine scaffold is the intermolecular coupling. No epimerization was detected in the reactions used. Conventional and microwave heating of the reactions are compared. Synthesis by microwave irradiation gave the desired compounds in higher yields and in shorter reaction times than those obtained by conventional heating.