Weighted total variation using split Bregman fast quantitative susceptibility mapping reconstruction method

An ill-posed inverse problem in quantitative susceptibility mapping(QSM) is usually solved using a regularization and optimization solver, which is time consuming considering the three-dimensional volume data. However, in clinical diagnosis, it is necessary to reconstruct a susceptibility map efficiently with an appropriate method. Here, a modified QSM reconstruction method called weighted total variation using split Bregman(WTVSB) is proposed. It reconstructs the susceptibility map with fast computational speed and effective artifact suppression by incorporating noise-suppressed data weighting with split Bregman iteration. The noise-suppressed data weighting is determined using the Laplacian of the calculated local field, which can prevent the noise and errors in field maps from spreading into the susceptibility inversion.The split Bregman iteration accelerates the solution of the L_1-regularized reconstruction model by utilizing a preconditioned conjugate gradient solver. In an experiment, the proposed reconstruction method is compared with truncated k-space division(TKD), morphology enabled dipole inversion(MEDI), total variation using the split Bregman(TVSB) method for numerical simulation, phantom and in vivo human brain data evaluated by root mean square error and mean structure similarity. Experimental results demonstrate that our proposed method can achieve better balance between accuracy and efficiency of QSM reconstruction than conventional methods, and thus facilitating clinical applications of QSM.     

Estimating cerebral venous oxygenation in human fetuses with ventriculomegaly using quantitative susceptibility mapping

Rationale and objectivesThe goal of this study was to estimate venous blood oxygen saturation (SvO2) in the superior sagittal sinus (SSS) in fetal brains with ventriculomegaly (VM) using quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM).Materials and methodsA radiofrequency spoiled gradient echo sequence was used to evaluate data on 19 fetuses with VM (gestational age(GA): median = 29.9 weeks (range 23 to 37.3 weeks)) and 20 healthy fetuses (GA: median = 30.9 (range 22.7 to 38.7 weeks)) at 1.5 T. Susceptibility weighted images encompassing the entire fetal brain were acquired within 1 min. An iterative, geometry constraint-based thresholded k-space division algorithm was used for generating QSM data of the fetal brain. The venous oxygen saturation was calculated using the magnetic susceptibility of the SSS obtained from the QSM data. Mixed-model analysis of variance and interobserver variability assessment were used to analyze the results.ResultsThe median SvO2 values in the entire VM cohort as well as for second and third trimester fetuses (with interquartile range) were: 67.8% (63.2%, 73.6%), 73.1% (69.1%, 77.3%) and 63.8% (59.4%, 68.1%), respectively. The corresponding median SvO2 value in the healthy control group was: 65.3% (58.3%, 68.2%), 67.5% (61.7%, 69.2%) and 60.8% (53.6%, 68.2%), respectively. However, the difference of SvO2 between VM and control groups was not significant at the p = 0.05 level (p = 0.076). The SvO2 was found decreasing significantly with GA in the healthy control group (p < 0.05).ConclusionsWe report for the first time the estimation of cerebral SvO2 in human fetuses with VM using QSM. This measure of oxygen saturation might be beneficial in assessing and monitoring the metabolic status of the fetus in various clinical conditions.     

MRI phase offset correction method impacts quantitative susceptibility mapping

Individual channel ultra-high field (7T) phase images have to be phase offset corrected prior to the mapping of magnetic susceptibility of tissue. Whilst numerous methods have been proposed for gradient recalled echo MRI phase offset correction, it remains unclear how they affect quantitative magnetic susceptibility values derived from phase images. Methods already proposed either employ a single or multiple echo time MRI data. In terms of the latter, offsets can be derived using an ultra-short echo time acquisition, or by estimating the offset based on two echo points with the assumption of linear phase evolution with echo time. Our evaluation involved 32 channel multi-echo time 7T GRE (Gradient Recalled Echo) and ultra-short echo time PETRA (Pointwise Encoding Time Reduction with Radial Acquisition) MRI data collected for a susceptibility phantom and three human brains. The combined phase images generated using four established offset correction methods (two single and two multiple echo time) were analysed, followed by an assessment of quantitative susceptibility values obtained for a phantom and human brains. The effectiveness of each method in removing the offsets was shown to reduce with increased echo time, decreased signal intensity and reduced overlap in coil sensitivity profiles. Quantitative susceptibility values and how they change with echo time were found to be method specific. Phase offset correction methods based on single echo time data have a tendency to produce more accurate and less noisy quantitative susceptibility maps in comparison with methods employing multiple echo time data.     

Decreasing iron susceptibility with temperature in quantitative susceptibility mapping: A phantom study

To clarify the temperature dependence of susceptibility estimated by quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM) analysis, we investigated the relationship between temperature and susceptibility using a cylinder phantom with varying temperatures. Six solutions with various concentrations of superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) nanoparticles were employed. These tubes were placed in a cylinder phantom and surrounded with water. The temperature of the circulated water was adjusted to change the temperature in the cylinder phantom from 25.8 °C to 42.5 °C. The cylinder phantom was scanned via a three-dimensional multiple spoiled gradient-echo sequence for R2* and QSM analyses with varying temperatures. The relationships between temperature, susceptibility, and R2* values were determined. Moreover, the temperature coefficients of susceptibility (χ-Tc) and (R2*-Tc) were calculated at each concentration and the linearities in these indices against each SPIO concentration were validated. Significant inverse correlations were found between temperature, susceptibility, and R2* values at each SPIO concentration due to the decrease in paramagnetic iron susceptibility that occurred with increasing temperature based on Curie's law. Moreover, although there were significant correlations between the susceptibility and R2* values at any temperature, the slopes of the regression lines grew in height with greater temperatures. The percentage of difference per Celsius degree in susceptibility in any SPIO concentration was lower than the corresponding finding among the R2* results. There were strong linearities between the SPIO concentration, χ-Tc (r = −0.994; p < 0.001), and R2*-Tc (r = −0.998; p < 0.001). The χ-Tc and R2*-Tc outcomes in a particular voxel varied considerably with the iron contents. Although there was an inverse correlation noted between temperature and susceptibility, the susceptibility analysis showed smaller temperature dependence relative to the R2* analysis. QSM analysis might be a more suitable option for magnetic resonance-based iron quantification in comparison with R2* relaxometry.     

Reporting of quantitative oxygen mapping in EPR imaging

Oxygen maps derived from electron paramagnetic resonance spectral-spatial imaging (EPRI) are based upon the relaxivity of molecular oxygen with paramagnetic spin probes. This technique can be combined with MRI to facilitate mapping of pO(2) values in specific anatomic locations with high precision. The co-registration procedure, which matches the physical and digital dimensions of EPR and MR images, may present the pO(2) map at the higher MRI resolution, exaggerating the spatial resolution of oxygen, making it difficult to precisely distinguish hypoxic regions from normoxic regions. The latter distinction is critical in monitoring the treatment of cancer by radiation and chemotherapy, since it is well-established that hypoxic regions are three or four times more resistant to treatment compared to normoxic regions. The aim of this article is to describe pO(2) maps based on the intrinsic resolution of EPRI. A spectral parameter that affects the intrinsic spatial resolution of EPRI is the full width at half maximum (FWHM) height of the gradient-free EPR absorption line in frequency-encoded imaging. In single point imaging too, the transverse relaxation times (T(2)(?)) limit the resolution since the signal decays by exp(-t(p)/T(2)(?)) where the delay time after excitation pulse, t(p), is related to the resolution. Although the spin densities of two point objects may be resolved at this separation, it is inadequate to evaluate quantitative changes of pO(2) levels since the linewidths are proportionately affected by pO(2). A spatial separation of at least twice this resolution is necessary to correctly identify a change in pO(2) level. In addition, the pO(2) values are blurred by uncertainties arising from spectral dimensions. Blurring due to noise and low resolution modulates the pO(2) levels at the boundaries of hypoxic and normoxic regions resulting in higher apparent pO(2) levels in hypoxic regions. Therefore, specification of intrinsic resolution and pO(2) uncertainties are necessary to interpret digitally processed pO(2) illustrations.     

3.0 T MR investigation of CLIPPERS: Role of susceptibility weighted and perfusion weighted imaging

For the first time we describe and interpret Susceptibility Weighted Imaging (SWI) and Perfusion Weighted Imaging (PWI) findings in a case of Chronic Lymphocytic Inflammation with Perivascular Pontine Enhancement Responsive to Steroids (CLIPPERS). The diagnosis of the disease was formulated on the basis of typical Magnetic Resonance (MR) findings and its responsiveness to steroids in a 40-year-old man with acute onset of dizziness, ataxia and diplopia. The patient underwent a 3 tesla (T) MR examination including SWI and PWI sequences. SWI revealed prominent veins and multiple hypointense lesions of different size widely distributed in brainstem and cerebellum, which could be expression of iron deposition or cellular infiltrates. PWI demonstrated global infratentorial hypoperfusion. SWI and PWI provide new information on CLIPPERS that might be helpful to understand the physiopathology of the disease. Further observations are needed to evaluate if these findings are peculiar for CLIPPERS and if they might have a role in a non-invasive diagnosis of the disease.     

An improved FSL-FIRST pipeline for subcortical gray matter segmentation to study abnormal brain anatomy using quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM)

Accurate and robust segmentation of subcortical gray matter (SGM) nuclei is required in many neuroimaging applications. FMRIB's Integrated Registration and Segmentation Tool (FIRST) is one of the most popular software tools for automated subcortical segmentation based on T₁-weighted (T1w) images. In this work, we demonstrate that FIRST tends to produce inaccurate SGM segmentation results in the case of abnormal brain anatomy, such as present in atrophied brains, due to a poor spatial match of the subcortical structures with the training data in the MNI space as well as due to insufficient contrast of SGM structures on T1w images. Consequently, such deviations from the average brain anatomy may introduce analysis bias in clinical studies, which may not always be obvious and potentially remain unidentified. To improve the segmentation of subcortical nuclei, we propose to use FIRST in combination with a special Hybrid image Contrast (HC) and Non-Linear (nl) registration module (HC-nlFIRST), where the hybrid image contrast is derived from T1w images and magnetic susceptibility maps to create subcortical contrast that is similar to that in the Montreal Neurological Institute (MNI) template. In our approach, a nonlinear registration replaces FIRST's default linear registration, yielding a more accurate alignment of the input data to the MNI template. We evaluated our method on 82 subjects with particularly abnormal brain anatomy, selected from a database of > 2000 clinical cases. Qualitative and quantitative analyses revealed that HC-nlFIRST provides improved segmentation compared to the default FIRST method.     

Accurate and sensitive measurements of magnetic susceptibility using echo planar imaging

Susceptibility differences are common causes for artifacts in magnetic resonance (MR); therefore, it is important to choose phantom materials in a way that these artifacts are kept at a minimum. In this study, a previously proposed MR imaging (MRI) method [Beuf O, Briguet A, Lissac M, Davis R. Magnetic resonance imaging for the determination of magnetic susceptibility of materials. J Magn Reson 1996; Series B(112):111-118] was improved to facilitate sensitive in-house measurements of different phantom materials so that such artifacts can more easily be minimized. Using standard MRI protocols and distilled water as reference, we measured magnetic volume susceptibility differences with a clinical MR system. Two imaging techniques, echo planar imaging (EPI) and spin echo, were compared using liquid samples whose susceptibilities were verified by MR spectroscopy. The EPI sequence has a very narrow bandwidth in the phase-encoding direction, which gives an increased sensitivity to magnetic field inhomogeneities. All MRI measurements were evaluated in two ways: (1) manual image analysis and (2) model fitting. The narrow bandwidth of the EPI made it possible to detect very small susceptibility differences (equivalent susceptibility difference, Deltachi(e)> or =0.02 ppm), and even plastics could be measured. Model fitting yielded high accuracy and high sensitivity and was less sensitive to other image artifacts as compared with manual image analysis.     

The role of voxel aspect ratio in determining apparent vascular phase behavior in susceptibility weighted imaging

Susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI) uses apparent phase contrast to enhance the contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) in the magnitude image. In theory, the apparent phase will depend on the aspect ratio when both venous blood and parenchyma occupy the same voxel. To demonstrate the maximal expected effect of the external field from a vein, we model the vein as an infinitely long cylinder perpendicular to the main magnetic field. The results show that the apparent phase of a voxel in the image is a function of resolution, vessel size and, to a lesser degree, vessel center within the voxel. The simulations explain why a negative-phase mask has worked in SWI processing of high-resolution images collected in the transverse direction, despite the expected positive-phase behavior for vessels perpendicular to the main field. The predicted phase behavior from the simulations is in good agreement with that observed from human brain datasets.     

Two-dimensional quantitative imaging of multicomponent samples using polychromatic X-rays

We present the theoretical formalism and an experimental demonstration of a technique for two-dimensional quantitative imaging of two-component samples using polychromatic X-rays. The technique takes into account the full spectral information of the incident polychromatic beam to quantify the total X-ray attenuation, due to each component presented in the sample, as functions of both energy and thickness. As a result, this technique is able to effectively ameliorate the effects of beam hardening. Here, we demonstrate the application of this technique to a two-component sample. The technique makes it possible for laboratory-based polychromatic X-ray sources to be used for critical quantitative purposes.     

Unambiguous identification of superparamagnetic iron oxide particles through quantitative susceptibility mapping of the nonlinear response to magnetic fields

Superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) particles generate signal void regions on gradient echo images due to their strong magnetization. In practice, the signal void region might be indistinguishable from that generated by air. However, the response of SPIO to an externally applied magnetic field is nonlinear. Magnetization of SPIO saturates at around 1 T while magnetization of water and air increase linearly with field strength. Phantom experiment and mice experiments demonstrated the feasibility of a nonambiguous identification of superparamagnetic contrast agents.     

In vivo measurement of tissue damage, oxygen saturation changes and blood flow changes after experimental traumatic brain injury in rats using susceptibility weighted imaging

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a prevalent disease, and many TBI patients experience disturbed cerebral blood flow (CBF) after injury. Moreover, TBI is difficult to quantify with conventional imaging modalities. In this paper, we utilized susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI) as a means to monitor functional blood oxygenation changes and to quantify CBF changes in animals after trauma. In this study using six rats, brain trauma was induced by a weight drop model and the brain was scanned over four time points: pre trauma, and 4 h, 24 h and 48 h post trauma. Five rats survived and one died after trauma. A blood phase analysis using filtered SWI phase images suggested that three rats recovered after 48 h and two rats deteriorated. SWI also suggested that CBF decreased by up to 26%. The CBF change is in agreement with the results of arterial spin labeling methods conducted in this study and with previously published results. Furthermore, SWI revealed an enlargement of the major venous vasculature in deep brain structures, in accordance with the location of diffuse axonal injury. Compared with the traditional, invasive, clinical monitoring of cerebral vascular damage and reduction in blood flow, this method offers a novel, safe and noninvasive approach to quantify changes in oxygen saturation and CBF and to visualize structural changes in blood vasculature after TBI.     

Quantitative perfusion imaging in carotid artery stenosis using dynamic susceptibility contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging

Quantitative, multislice dynamic susceptibility contrast-enhanced MRI perfusion measurements were used to determine the patterns of cerebral blood flow (CBF), cerebral blood volume (CBV), mean transit time (MTT), and normalized first moment of the tissue deltaR2-time curve (N) in 11 subjects with carotid artery occlusion or stenosis. MTT correlated with degree of carotid stenosis, whereas a range of alterations in CBF and CBV were found presumably reflecting variables degrees of collateral flow. There was no significant correlation between MRI and SPET flow perfusion measurements, with increasing disparity between the two techniques at higher inter-hemispheric flow ratios. The effect of obtaining the arterial input function (AIF) from the middle cerebral artery (MCA) ipsilateral or contralateral to the stenosis was determined. Despite the use of an AIF from the MCA, which is distal to the circle of Willis, and hence the major sources of collateral supply, there was still some extra dispersion of the contrast agent bolus due to differences in arrival time.     

Detection of susceptibility effects using simultaneous T(2)* and magnetic field mapping

Tracking susceptibility effects is a convenient way to detect small inclusions in a bulk tissue matrix by MRI. We propose a quantitative assessment of these susceptibility effects by simultaneously mapping T(2)* and magnetic field from the time course of magnitude and phase using a multiple GE sequence at 4.7 T. A high-pass scheme is also introduced to highlight the mesoscopic magnetic field variations due to local susceptibility differences specifically in the magnetic field map. Applying this method to muscle tissue, we demonstrate that connective tissue generates detectable susceptibility effects through concomitant local magnetic field variation and T(2)* shortening.     

Fast T1 mapping of the brain at high field using Look-Locker and fast imaging

This study aims to develop and evaluate a new method for fast high resolution T1 mapping of the brain based on the Look-Locker technique. Single-shot turboflash sequence with high temporal acceleration is used to sample the recovery of inverted magnetization. Multi-slice interleaved acquisition within one inversion slab is used to reduce the number of inversion pulses and hence SAR. Accuracy of the proposed method was studied using simulation and validated in phantoms. It was then evaluated in healthy volunteers and stroke patients. In-vivo results were compared to values obtained by inversion recovery fast spin echo (IR-FSE) and literatures. With the new method, T₁ values in phantom experiments agreed with reference values with median error < 3%. For in-vivo experiments, a T1 map was acquired in 3.35 s and the T1 maps of the whole brain were acquired in 2 min with two-slice interleaving, with a spatial resolution of 1.1 × 1.1 × 4 mm³. The T₁ values obtained were comparable to those measured with IR-FSE and those reported in literatures. These results demonstrated the feasibility of the proposed method for fast T1 mapping of the brain in both healthy volunteers and stroke patients at 3T.     

Improved elimination of phase effects from background field inhomogeneities for susceptibility weighted imaging at high magnetic field strengths

To enhance susceptibility-related contrast of magnetic resonance images, the phase of susceptibility weighted data needs to be corrected for background inhomogeneities and phase wraps caused by them. Current methods either use homodyne filtering or a combination of phase unwrapping and high pass filtering. The drawback of homodyne filtering is incomplete elimination of phase wraps in areas with steep phase topography produced by background inhomogeneities of the static magnetic field. The disadvantage of phase unwrapping is that it requires subsequent high pass filtering, which introduces artifacts in areas with very steep transitions, such as areas near interfaces between parenchyma and bone or air. A method is proposed that reduces the artifacts associated with high pass filtering without sacrificing the advantages of phase unwrapping. This technique is demonstrated with phantom data at 1.5 T and with human data at 1.5, 3 and 7 T.     

High resolution diffusion weighted magnetic resonance imaging of the pancreas using reduced field of view single-shot echo-planar imaging at 3 T

Diffusion weighted magnetic resonance imaging (DWI) has been mostly acquired using single-shot echo-planar imaging (ss EPI) to minimize motion induced artifacts. The spatial resolution, however, is inherently limited in ss EPI especially for abdominal imaging, even with the advances in parallel imaging. A novel method of reduced Field of View ss EPI (rFOV ss EPI) has achieved high resolution DWI in human carotid artery, spinal cord with reduced blurring and higher spatial resolution than conventional ss EPI, but it has not been used to pancreas imaging. In the work, comparisons between the full FOV ss-DW EPI and rFOV ss-DW EPI in image qualities and ADC values of pancreatic tumors and normal pancreatic tissues were performed to demonstrate the feasibility of pancreatic high resolution rFOV DWI. There were no significant differences in the mean ADC values between full FOV DWI and rFOV DWI for the 17 subjects using b = 600 s/mm² (P = 0.962). However, subjective scores of image quality was significantly higher at rFOV ss DWI (P = 0.008 and 0.000 for b-value = 0 s/mm² and 600 s/mm² respectively). The spatial resolution of DWI for pancreas was increased by a factor of over 2.0 (from almost 3.0 mm/pixel to 1.25 mm/pixel) using rFOV ss EPI technique. Reduced FOV ss EPI can provide good DW images and is promising to benefit applications for pancreatic diseases.     

Spatial mapping of flame radical emission using a spectroscopic multi-colour imaging system

An intensified multi-colour digital imaging system allowing simultaneous monitoring of light from an object in four wavelength bands was used for flame emission studies. The spatial distribution of the molecular emission from different flame radicals, such as OH, C₂, CH, and CN was recorded, also in the presence of a heavy background due to Planck-radiating soot particles. Exposure times down to 8 s could be reached allowing studies of turbulent flames. The imaging spectroscopic recordings were supported by simultaneous point monitoring of the full emission spectrum. A technique for imaging flow measurements using a spectroscopic gas correlation technique is proposed.