A unified approach to aerodynamic damping and drag/lift instabilities,and its application to dry inclined cable galloping

Inclined cables of cable-stayed bridges often experience large amplitude vibrations. One of the potential excitation mechanisms is dry inclined cable galloping, which has been observed in wind tunnel tests but which has not previously been fully explained theoretically. In this paper, a general expression is derived for the quasi-steady aerodynamic damping (positive or negative) of a cylinder of arbitrary cross-section yawed/inclined to the flow, for small amplitude vibrations in any plane. The expression covers the special cases of conventional quasi-steady aerodynamic damping, Den Hartog galloping and the drag crisis, as well as dry inclined cable galloping. A nondimensional aerodynamic damping parameter governing this behaviour is proposed, which is a function of only the Reynolds number, the angle between the wind velocity and the cable axis, and the orientation of the vibration plane. Measured static force coefficients from wind tunnel tests have been used with the theoretical expression to predict values of this parameter. Two main areas of instability (i.e. negative aerodynamic damping) have been identified, both in the critical Reynolds number region, one of which was previously observed in separate wind tunnel tests on a dynamic cable model. The minimum values of structural damping required to prevent dry inclined cable galloping are defined, and other factors in the behaviour in practice are discussed.     

Aerodynamic control of bridge cables through shape modification: A preliminary study

This paper examines the viability of modifying bridge cable shape and surface for the purpose of controlling wind-induced vibrations. To this end, an extensive wind-tunnel test campaign was carried out on various cable shapes about the critical Reynolds number region. Cable shapes were chosen to passively modify the flow in a particular manner. Tested shapes included those which have some form of waviness, faceting and shrouding. Section models were tested using a static inclined rig, allowing them to be installed at yawed cable-wind angles for both smooth and turbulent flow conditions. The aerodynamic damping of the tested cylinders is evaluated by applying both 1- and 2-dof quasi-steady aerodynamic instability models. This allows for the prediction of regions of aerodynamic instability, as a function of flow angle and Reynolds number. Whilst the plain, wavy and faceted cylinders are predicted to suffer from either dry inclined galloping, “drag crisis” or Den Hartog galloping, the shrouded cylinder is found to be stable for all angles of attack, albeit with an increase in drag at typical design wind velocities. Finally, turbulent flow is found to introduce an increased amount of aerodynamic damping mainly by providing a more constant lift force over tested Reynolds numbers.     

Experimental investigation on the aerodynamic behavior of square cylinders with rounded corners

The influence of corner shaping on the aerodynamic behavior of square cylinders is studied through wind tunnel tests. Beside the sharp-edge corner condition considered as a benchmark, two different rounded-corner radii (r/b=1/15 and 2/15) are studied. Global forces and surface pressure are simultaneously measured in the Reynolds number range between 1.7×10⁴ and 2.3×10⁵. The measurements are extended to angles of incidence between 0° and 45°, but the analysis and the discussion presented herein is focused on the low angle of incidence range. It is found that the critical angle of incidence, corresponding to the flow reattachment on the lateral face exposed to the flow, decreases as r/b increases and that an intermittent flow condition exists. In the case of turbulent incoming flow, two different aerodynamic regimes governed by the Reynolds number have been recognized.     

The effect of Reynolds number on boundary layer turbulence

A new facility for studying high Reynolds number incompressible turbulent boundary layer flows has been constructed. It consists of a moderately sized wind tunnel, completely enclosed by a pressure vessel, which can raise the ambient air pressure in and around the wind tunnel to 8 atmospheres. This results in a Reynolds number range of about 20:1, while maintaining incompressible flow. Results are presented for the zero pressure gradient flat plate boundary layer over a momentum thickness Reynolds number range 1500–15?000. Scaling issues for high Reynolds number non-equilibrium boundary layers are discussed, with data comparing the three-dimensional turbulent boundary layer flow over a swept bump at Reynolds numbers of 3800 and 8600. It is found that successful prediction of these types of flows must include length scales which do not scale on Reynolds number, but are inherent to the geometry of the flow.     

横摆角下汽车尾部湍流特征量的PIV试验分析

汽车尾部湍流场是汽车压差阻力的主要来源,在HD-2汽车模型风洞中,首先使用测力天平和测压系统,对横摆角工况下汽车模型的气动六分力和纵对称截面48个测点的表面压力进行了测量,然后利用PIV测量技术对模型在横摆角分别为0°、15°的尾部湍流场进行了测量,获得该模型尾流场的速度场、涡量场和雷诺应力流场信息,通过计算得出尾流场区域空间相关系数和湍流积分尺度。结果表明:在横摆角工况下,汽车模型尾部涡流的结构呈现向上发展的趋势;尾流场拖拽涡的范围和强度的增大导致了模型气动力出现较大的增加;湍流积分尺度的变化表明,尾部涡流区的分离噪声与涡流分离位置有关,在汽车尾部造型设计中,要尽量推迟尾部涡流的分离。     

A numerical and experimental hybrid approach for the investigation of aerodynamic forces on stay cables suffering from rain-wind induced vibration

The aerodynamic forces on a stay cable under a rain-wind induced vibration (RWIV) are difficult to measure directly in a wind tunnel test. This paper presents a hybrid approach that combines an experiment with computational fluid dynamics (CFD) for the investigation on aerodynamic forces of a stay cable under a RWIV. The stay cable and flow field were considered as two substructures of the system. The oscillation of the stay cable was first measured by using a wind tunnel test of a RWIV under an artificial rainfall condition. The oscillation of the cable was treated as a previously known moving boundary condition and applied to the flow field. Only the flow field with the known moving cable boundary was then numerically simulated by using a CFD method (such as Fluent 6.3). The transient aerodynamic forces of the stay cable with a predetermined cable oscillation were obtained from numerical calculations. The characteristics of the aerodynamic forces in the time domain and frequency domain were then analysed for various cases. To verify the feasibility and accuracy of the proposed hybrid approach, the transient aerodynamic forces were applied to a single-degree-of-freedom model (SDOF) of the stay cable to calculate the RWIV of the cable. A comparison was performed between the oscillation responses of the stay cable obtained from the calculated (SDOF model) and experimental results, and the results indicate that the hybrid approach accurately simulates the transient aerodynamic forces of the stay cable. The equivalent damping ratios induced by the aerodynamic forces were obtained for various wind speeds. Furthermore, a nonlinear model of the aerodynamic force is proposed based on the calculation results, and the coefficients in the model were identified by a nonlinear least-squares technique.     

Experimental investigation of the influence of the flow structure on the aerodynamic coefficients of the IXV vehicle

In the framework of the ESA Future Launchers Preparatory Program (FLPP) an experimental study on the aerodynamic behavior during the re-entry phase of the Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle (IXV) configuration was conducted in the DLR hypersonic wind tunnel H2K in Cologne. Tests were carried out at Mach 6.0 and 8.7 with different flap deflection angles and the angle of attack varied continuously between 20° and 55° to investigate the flow topology as well as the aerodynamic forces and moments and the surface pressure distribution. The experimental data show that depending on the combination of the flap deflection angle (δ _L/R) and angle of attack (α) the complex flow structure in the vicinity of the flaps significantly influences the vehicle’s aerodynamic coefficients. An analysis of this shock/shock and shock/boundary layer interaction causing flow separation with reattachment is performed.     

Dynamic wind loads and wake characteristics of a wind turbine model in an atmospheric boundary layer wind

An experimental study was conducted to characterize the dynamic wind loads and evolution of the unsteady vortex and turbulent flow structures in the near wake of a horizontal axis wind turbine model placed in an atmospheric boundary layer wind tunnel. In addition to measuring dynamic wind loads (i.e., aerodynamic forces and bending moments) acting on the wind turbine model by using a high-sensitive force-moment sensor unit, a high-resolution digital particle image velocimetry (PIV) system was used to achieve flow field measurements to quantify the characteristics of the turbulent vortex flow in the near wake of the wind turbine model. Besides conducting “free-run” PIV measurements to determine the ensemble-averaged statistics of the flow quantities such as mean velocity, Reynolds stress, and turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) distributions in the wake flow, “phase-locked” PIV measurements were also performed to elucidate further details about evolution of the unsteady vortex structures in the wake flow in relation to the position of the rotating turbine blades. The effects of the tip-speed-ratio of the wind turbine model on the dynamic wind loads and wake flow characteristics were quantified in the terms of the variations of the aerodynamic thrust and bending moment coefficients of the wind turbine model, the evolution of the helical tip vortices and the unsteady vortices shedding from the blade roots and turbine nacelle, the deceleration of the incoming airflows after passing the rotation disk of the turbine blades, the TKE and Reynolds stress distributions in the near wake of the wind turbine model. The detailed flow field measurements were correlated with the dynamic wind load measurements to elucidate underlying physics in order to gain further insight into the characteristics of the dynamic wind loads and turbulent vortex flows in the wakes of wind turbines for the optimal design of the wind turbines operating in atmospheric boundary layer winds.     

Vortex reynolds number in turbulent boundary layers

The effects of vortex Reynolds number on the statistics of turbulence in a turbulent boundary layer have been investigated. Vortex Reynolds number is defined as the ratio of circulation around the vortex structure to the fluid viscosity. The vortex structure of the outer region was modeled and a full numerical simulation was then conducted using a high-order spectral method. A unit domain of the outer region of a turbulent boundary layer was assumed to be composed of essentially three elements: a wall, a Blasius mean shear, and an elliptic vortex inclined at 45° to the flow direction. The laminar base-flow Reynolds number is roughly in the same range as that of a turbulent boundary layer based on eddy viscosity, and the vortex-core diameter based on the boundary-layer thickness is nearly the same as the maximum mixing length in a turbulent boundary layer. The computational box size, namely, 500, 150, and 250 wall units in the streamwise, surface-normal, and spanwise directions, respectively, is approximately the same as the measured quasi-periodic spacings of the near-wall turbulence-producing events in a turbulent boundary layer. The effects of vortex Reynolds number and the signs of the circulation on the moments of turbulence were examined. The signs mimic the ejection and sweep types of organized motions of a turbulent boundary layer. A vortex Reynolds number of 200 describes the turbulence moments in the outer layer reasonably well.     

Reynolds number effects on a turbulent boundary layer with separation,reattachment, and recovery

The present paper addresses experimental studies of Reynolds number effects on a turbulent boundary layer with separation, reattachment, and recovery. A momentum thickness Reynolds number varies from 1,100 to 20,100 with a wind tunnel enclosed in a pressure vessel by varying the air density and wind tunnel speed. A custom-built, high-resolution laser Doppler anemometer provides fully resolved turbulence measurements over the full Reynolds number range. The experiments show that the mean flow is at most a very weak function of Reynolds number while turbulence quantities strongly depend on Reynolds number. Roller vortices are generated in the separated shear layer caused by the Kelvin–Helmholtz instability. Empirical Reynolds number scalings for the mean velocity and Reynolds stresses are proposed for the upstream boundary layer, the separated region, and the recovery region. The inflectional instability plays a critical role in the scaling in the separated region. The near-wall flow recovers quickly downstream of reattachment even if the outer layer is far from an equilibrium state. As a result, a stress equilibrium layer where a flat-plate boundary layer scaling is valid develops in the recovery region and grows outward moving downstream.     

Low speed flutter and limit cycle oscillations of a two-degree-of-freedom flat plate in a wind tunnel

This paper explores the dynamical response of a two-degree-of-freedom flat plate undergoing classical coupled-mode flutter in a wind tunnel. Tests are performed at low Reynolds number (Re~2.5×10⁴), using an aeroelastic set-up that enables high amplitude pitch–plunge motion. Starting from rest and increasing the flow velocity, an unstable behaviour is first observed at the merging of frequencies: after a transient growth period the system enters a low amplitude limit-cycle oscillation regime with slowly varying amplitude. For higher velocity the system transitions to higher-amplitude and stable limit cycle oscillations (LCO) with amplitude increasing with the flow velocity. Decreasing the velocity from this upper LCO branch the system remains in stable self-sustained oscillations down to 85% of the critical velocity. Starting from rest, the system can also move toward a stable LCO regime if a significant perturbation is imposed. Those results show that both the flutter boundary and post-critical behaviour are affected by nonlinear mechanisms. They also suggest that nonlinear aerodynamic effects play a significant role.     

Non-symmetric bi-stable flow around the Ahmed body

The flow around the Ahmed body at varying Reynolds numbers under yawing conditions is investigated experimentally. The body geometry belongs to a regime subject to spanwise flow instability identified in symmetric flow by Cadot and co-workers (Grandemange et al., 2013b). Our experiments cover the two slant angles 25° and 35° and Reynolds numbers up to 2.784 × 10⁶. Special emphasis lies on the aerodynamics under side wind influence. For the 35° slant angle, forces and moments change significantly with the yawing angle in the range 10° ≤ |β| ≤ 15°. The lift and the pitching moment exhibit strong fluctuations due to bi-stable flow around a critical angle β of ±12.5°, where the pitching moment changes sign. Time series of the forces and moments are studied and explained by PIV measurements in the flow field near the rear of the body.     

细长锥边界层绊线转捩风洞自由飞试验

通过在半锥角θ_c=10°细长锥面上布置一定数量的人工绊线,促使细长锥表面边界层在相应轴向位置上发生层流向湍流转变的固定转捩,采用运动自由度不受约束的风洞自由飞试验技术研究边界层转捩对高超声速细长锥再入体无控自由飞行下的运动特性和气动特性影响规律,并与以往无人工绊线的细长锥风洞自由飞试验结果作对比.试验马赫数Ma=5.0,通过改变风洞前室总压P_0实现两个雷诺数的模拟,以模型长为特征尺寸自由流雷诺数分别为0.84×10~6和1.68×10~6.结果表明:当自由流雷诺数Re=0.84×10~6时,人工绊线尚不足以促使边界层发生转捩,有绊线的细长锥气动特性与无绊线基本一致,动稳定导数大于零;当自由流雷诺数Re=1.68×10~6时,人工绊线促使边界层发生固定转捩,细长锥的动稳定导数小于零,细长锥自由飞行动稳定.     

Visualization by PIV of dynamic stall on a vertical axis wind turbine

The aerodynamic behavior of a vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT) is analyzed by means of 2D particle image velocimetry (PIV), focusing on the development of dynamic stall at different tip speed ratios. The VAWT has an unsteady aerodynamic behavior due to the variation with the azimuth angle θ of the blade’s sections’ angle of attack, perceived velocity and Reynolds number. The phenomenon of dynamic stall is then an inherent effect of the operation of a VAWT at low tip speed ratios, impacting both loads and power. The present work is driven by the need to understand this phenomenon, by visualizing and quantifying it, and to create a database for model validation. The experimental method uses PIV to visualize the development of the flow over the suction side of the airfoil for two different reference Reynolds numbers and three tip speed ratios in the operational regime of a small urban wind turbine. The field-of-view of the experiment covers the entire rotation of the blade and almost the entire rotor area. The analysis describes the evolution of the flow around the airfoil and in the rotor area, with special focus on the leading edge separation vortex and trailing edge shed vorticity development. The method also allows the quantification of the flow, both the velocity field and the vorticity/circulation (only the results of the vorticity/circulation distribution are presented), in terms of the phase locked average and the random component.     

风激下结构的紊流诱发振动

高耸结构群或桥梁部件在风激下，除了产生经典气动弹性效应外，还会引起结构或部件间的相互动力干涉作用，特别是由于上游结构振荡绕流所形成的紊流激励作用，使得处于尾流场中的结构或部件的动态性能与上游结构有明显的差别。文中报导弹性约束下两Ｈ型结构的气动干涉实验结果。依据实验观察到的主要特征分析风激干涉下结构的紊流诱发振动与随机动力稳定性，得出紊流随机响应的解析表达式以及用以确定临界风速的动力稳定性条件，计算     

Critical Reynolds number and galloping instabilities: experiments on circular cylinders

The current paper considers large galloping-like vibrations of circular cylinders, generically inclined and yawed to the flow. The case of a round section prone to galloping is seemingly a paradox since rotational symmetry (or close to it) and classical galloping are apparently contradictory. Still there seems to be a range of wind speeds far from those for typical Kármán vortex shedding resonance where such a phenomenon does occur. Experimental results from both static and dynamic large-scale rigid cable models, presented here, show that this range coincides with the critical Reynolds number regime, where notable symmetry-breaking characteristics such as nonzero mean lift emerge. It is shown that a fundamental difference between the inclined and non-inclined cylinder aerodynamics may exist accommodating different pressure distributions and different resulting dynamic behaviours. Unsteady pressure measurements showing avalanche-like “jumps” and vortex dislocations building between cell structures in the cylinder spanwise direction are conjectured to be a key element in the unstable behaviour experienced.     

Aerodynamic characteristics of an inclined and yawed circular cylinder with artificial rivulet

Stay cables of cable-stayed bridges often experience vibrations with large amplitudes induced by wind or jointly by both wind and rain. To understand the aerodynamic characteristics of the stay cables and excitation mechanics of rain–wind-induced vibration (RWIV), an inclined and yawed circular cylinder with and without an artificial upper rivulet is studied through a series of wind tunnel tests. The impacts of upper rivulet and axial flow on the aerodynamics of the cylinder are investigated. It is found that for an inclined and yawed cylinder without rivulet there exists a non-zero lift force at large wind angle. Furthermore, the wind pressures and aerodynamic forces acting on both the cylinder and the upper rivulet are obtained, which can be used to develop more rational theoretical models for RWIV of stay cables. Results show that the upper rivulet can both enhance and depress Karman vortex shedding depending on the position of the rivulet. As a result, dramatic variations of the aerodynamic forces acting on the cylinder and the rivulet will occur, which may eventually result in RWIV. Also axial flow may have a noticeable influence on the aerodynamic characteristics of the inclined and yawed cylinder. And the presence of the rivulet can enhance such influence from the axial flow.     

AN EXTENDED k-ε MODEL FOR NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF WIND FLOW AROUND BUILDINGS

It is assumed in this paper that for a high Reynolds number nearly homogeneouswind flow, the Reynolds stresses are uniquely related to the mean velocity gradientsand the two independent turbulent scaling parameters k and E. By applying dimensionalanalysis and owing to the Cayley-Hamilton theorem for tensors, a new turbulenceenclosure model so-called the axtended k-ε model has been developed. The coefficientsof the model expression were detemined by the wind tunnel experimental data ofhomogeneous shear turbulent flow. The model was compared with the standard k-εmodel in in composition and the prediction of the Reynold’s normal Stresses. Using thenew model the numerical simulation of wind flow around a square cross-section tallbuilding was performed. The results show that the extended k-ε model improves theprediction of wind velocities around the building the building and wind pressures on the buildingenvelope.     

Experimental investigation of the effect of Reynolds number on flow structures in the wake of a circular parachute canopy

In the present study, an experimental study was conducted to characterize the effect of Reynolds number on flow structures in the turbulent wake of a circular parachute canopy by utilizing stereoscopic particle image velocime- try （Stereo-PIV） technique. The parachute model tested in the present study was attached by 28 nylon suspension lines and placed horizontally at the test section center of the wind tunnel. The obtained results showed that with the in- crease of Reynolds number, the intensities of the vortices near the downstream region of the canopy skirt were found to increase accordingly. However, the increase of Reynolds number did not result in a significant change in ensemble- averaged normalized x-component of the velocity, ensembleaveraged normalized vorticity, normalized Reynolds stress, and normalized turbulent kinetic energy distributions in the turbulent wake of the circular parachute canopy. The obtained results are very useful to further our understanding about the unsteady aerodynamics in the wake of flexible circular parachute canopies and to constitute a reference for CFD computation.     

湍流边界层相干结构剩余脉动雷诺应力项的实验测量

用IFA300恒温热线风速仪和X形二分量热线探针以采样间隔小于湍流耗散时间尺度的分辨率精细测量了风洞中平板湍流边界层不同法向位置的瞬时流向、法向速度分量的时间序列信号。用条件采样和相位平均技术提取了相干结构猝发过程中相干结构剩余脉动雷诺应力和随机脉动对相干结构贡献的雷诺应力的条件相位平均波形。基于理论上对湍流相干结构动量方程中随机脉动对相干结构贡献的雷诺应力和相干结构剩余脉动雷诺应力项的分析,对两种雷诺应力项进行了对比研究。研究发现,相干结构剩余脉动雷诺应力项在数值上具有和随机脉动对相干结构贡献的雷诺应力相同的数量级,表明在相干结构动力学模型方程中,相干结构剩余脉动雷诺应力项并不像以前估计的那样可以忽略不计。