Tractor tire aspect ratio effects on soil bulk density and cone index

A 580/70R38 tractor drive tire with an aspect ratio of 0.756 and a 650/75R32 tire with an aspect ratio of 0.804 were operated at two dynamic loads and two inflation pressures on a sandy loam and a clay loam with loose soil above a hardpan. Soil bulk density and cone index were measured just above the hardpan beneath the centerline and edge of the tires. The bulk densities were essentially equal for the two tires and cone indices were also essentially equal for the two tires. Soil bulk density and cone index increased with increasing dynamic load at constant inflation pressure, and with increasing inflation pressure at constant dynamic load. In comparisons of the centerline and edge locations, soil bulk density and cone index were significantly less beneath the edge than beneath the centerline of the tires. Soil compaction is not likely to be affected by the aspect ratio of radial-ply tractor drive tires when aspect ratios are between 0.75 and 0.80.     

Soil stress state orientation beneath a tire at various loads and inflation pressures

Stress state transducers (SSTs) were used to determine the orientation of the major principal stress, σ₁, in soil beneath the centeline of an 18.4R38 radial-ply R-1 drive tire operated at 10% slip. Two soils, a sandy loam and a clay loam, were each prepared twice to obtain two density profiles. One profile of each soil had a hardpan and the soil above the hardpan was loose. The soil in the second profile was loosely tilled. The stress state was determined at a depth of 358 mm in the sandy loam and 241 mm in the clay loam soil. The tire was operated at two dynamic loads (13.2 and 25.3 kN), each at two levels of inflation pressure (41 and 124 kPa). When the orientation of σ₁ was determined directly beneath the axle, the mean angles of tilt in the direction of travel ranged from 6 to 23 degrees from vertical. Inflation pressure did not significantly affect the angle when the dynamic load was 13.2 kN in the sandy loam soil, and neither inflation pressure nor dynamic load significantly affected the angle in the clay loam soil. When the dynamic load was 25.3 kN in the sandy loam soil, the orientation of the major principal stress determined directly beneath the axle was tilted significantly more in the direction of travel when the tire was at 41 kPa inflation pressure than when at 124 kPa. These changes in stress orientation demonstrate the importance of measuring the complete stress state in soil, rather than stresses along only one line of action. The changing orientation of σ₁ as the tire passes over the soil indicates the soil undergoes kneading and supports future investigation of the contribution of changes in stress orientation to soil compaction.     

Establishment of safe axle loads for sugarcane soils under varying moisture content

Studies were conducted for the establishment of safe axle loads for sugarcane hauling vehicles beyond which detrimental soil compaction would be induced. The treatments involved running a loaded test vehicle in field strips previously chosen at random. Safe loads were established by testing the level of significance of the difference in induced soil compaction between treated and non-treated sections. Working under soil moisture contents of 21.4–27.1% (dry basis), safe axle loads for two 18.4 × 30 tires were found to be 55.6 and 60.0 kN for sandy clay loam and sandy loam soils with initial dry bulk density about 1.434 g/cm³. These corresponded to ground contact pressures of 111 and 120 kPa, respectively.     

The use of soil compaction levels in the selection of field-safe sugarcane transport vehicles

Data was collected for single bundle and nucleus estate trailers aimed at selecting the trailer units that could safely travel in the sugarcane fields without causing detrimental soil compaction. The proportion of trailers carrying loads in excess of established safe axle loads was assessed. Over 60% single bundle trailers traveling in sandy loam and sandy clay loam fields were found not to induce detrimental soil compaction. Nucleus estate trailers, however, were sufficiently loaded to cause significant soil compaction. Working under soil moisture contents of 21.4–27.1% (dry basis), safe loads were found to be payloads of 64.9 and 46.1 kN carried by single bundle and nucleus estate trailers (respectively) on a single axle having two 10 ply 18.4×30 tires with an inflation pressure of 207 kPa.     

Evaluation of an empirical traction equation for forestry tires

Variable load test data were used to evaluate the applicability of an existing forestry tire traction model for a new forestry tire and a worn tire of the same size with and without tire chains in a range of soil conditions. The clay and sandy soils ranged in moisture content from 17 to 28%. Soil bulk density varied between 1.1 and 1.4g cm⁻³ with cone index values between 297 and 1418 kPa for a depth of 140 mm. Two of the clay soils had surface cover or vegetation, the other clay soil and the sandy soil had no surface cover. Tractive performance data were collected in soil bins using a single tire test vehicle with the tire running at 20% slip. A non-linear curve fitting technique was used to optimize the model by fitting it to collected input torque data by modifying the coefficients of the traction model equations. Generally, this procedure resulted in improved prediction of input torque, gross traction ratio and net traction ratio. The predicted tractive performance using the optimized coefficients showed that the model worked reasonably well on bare, uniform soils with the new tire. The model was flexible and could be modified to predict tractive performance of the worn tire with and without chains on the bare homogeneous soils. The model was not adequate for predicting tractive performance on less uniform soils with a surface cover for any of the tire treatments.     

Prediction of clay soil compaction

Field measurements were made of soil density and moisture patterns under different vehicle tire paths with varying external pressures and number of passes. In addition, laboratory index tests were performed to determine the compaction behaviour of the same soil. Using these results, a prediction equation of dry density in terms of applied pressure and moisture content was obtained for the clay soil. A previously developed equation for sandy soil was modified for the complete range of moisture contents encountered. Estimation of shear strength for the clay soil was made using plastic and liquid limits.     

Influence of the axle load, tyre size and configuration on the compaction of a freshly tilled clayey soil

Enhancement of the potential root growth volume is the main objective of farmers when they establish a conventional tillage system. Therefore, the main function of primary tillage is to increase soil’s structural macroporosity. In spite of this, during secondary tillage operations on these freshly tilled soils, the traffic on seedbeds causes significant increases in soil compaction. The aim of this paper was to quantify soil compaction induced by tractor traffic on a recently tilled non consolidated soil, to match ballast and tyre size on the tractors used during secondary tillage. The work was performed in the South of the Rolling Pampa region, Argentina. Secondary tillage traffic was simulated by one pass of a conventional 2WD tractor, using four configurations of bias-ply rear tyres: 18.4×34, 23.1×30, 18.4×38 and 18.4×38 duals, two ballast conditions were used in each configuration. Soil bulk density and cone index in a 0 to 600 mm profile were measured before and after traffic. Topsoil compaction increased as did ground pressure. Subsoil compaction increased as total axle load increased and was independent from ground pressure. At heavy conditions, topsoil levels always showed higher cone index values. From 150 to 450 mm depth, the same tendency was found, but with smaller increases in the cone index parameter, 22 to 48%, averaging 35%. Finally, at the deepest layer considered, 600 mm, differential increases due to the axle load are great enough as to be considered similar to those found in the upper horizon, 36 to 64%, averaging 55%. On the other hand, bulk density tended to be less responsive than cone index to the traffic treatments. Topsoil compaction can be reduced by matching conventional bias-ply tyres with an optimized axle weight.     

Effect of multiple passes of tractor with varying normal load on subsoil compaction

A field experiment was conducted on alluvial soil with sandy loam texture, in a complete randomized design, to determine the compaction of sub-soil layers due to different passes of a test tractor with varying normal loads. The selected normal loads were 4.40, 6.40 and 8.40 kN and the number of passes 1, 6, 11 and 16. The bulk density and cone penetration resistance were measured to determine the compaction at 10 equal intervals of 5 cm down the surface. The observations were used to validate a simulation model on sub-soil compaction due to multiple passes of tractor in controlled conditions. The bulk density and penetration resistance in 0–15 cm depth zone continuously increased up to 16 passes of the test tractor, and more at higher normal loads. The compaction was less in different sub-soil layers at lower levels of loads. The impact of higher loads and larger number of passes on compaction was more effective in the soil depth less than 30 cm; for example the normal load of 8.40 kN caused the maximum bulk density of 1.53 Mg/m³ after 16 passes. In 30–45 cm depth layer also, the penetration resistance increased with the increase in loads and number of passes but to a lesser extent which further decreased in the subsoil layers below 45 cm. Overall, the study variables viz. normal load on tractor and number of passes influenced the bulk density and soil penetration resistance in soil depth in the range of 0–45 cm at 1% level of significance. However, beyond 45 cm soil depth, the influence was not significant. The R² calculated from observed and predicted values with respect to regression equations for bulk density and penetration resistance were 0.7038 and 0.76, respectively.     

Tractive performance of a tread design for improved flexibility

The tractive performance of an 18.4R38 radial-ply tractor tire with increased flexibility in the tread area was compared to that of a standard tread design. Normal soil-tire interface stresses were measured at four locations on the lug surfaces of both tires operating on Decatur clay loam and Norfolk sandy loam soils. There was a tendency for the increased flexibility in the tread area to provide a higher net traction ratio at the same tractive efficiency as the standard tread design, especially on Decatur clay loam soil. The more flexible tread design reduced the magnitude of peak normal contact stresses across the tire width, which may have implications for reducing soil compaction without compromising tractive performance. The more flexible tire reduced the average normal contact stress by approximately 15% in the sandy loam soil and 23% in the clay loam soil for the range of operating conditions investigated.     

Determination of the soil pressure distribution around a cone penetrometer

The objective of this paper was to investigate the pressure distribution around a cone penetrometer using a pressure sensing mat under laboratory conditions. The investigation was conducted under (1) constrained conditions using cylindrical split pipe molds and (2) unconstrained conditions using a soil box. These tests were conducted in Capay clay and Yolo loam soil containing two different moisture conditions and two compaction levels.In the constrained tests, a maximum radial pressure of 111 kPa was observed in the Capay clay soil with 3.4–4.3% d.b. moisture content and three blows of compaction (cone index value of 2040 kPa) when using the 41 mm diameter split pipe mold. These pressure levels decreased to 82 and 22 kPa, respectively, when 65 and 88 mm diameter molds were used. In both the Capay clay and Yolo loam tests, the average radial pressure and average cone index values showed similar trends.In the unconstrained tests, a maximum pressure of 9.0 kPa was observed in the Capay clay with 4.5% d.b. moisture content and three blows of compaction (cone index value of 550 kPa) at a horizontal distance of 25.4 mm from the vertical axis of the cone penetrometer and minimum pressure levels in the range of 0.2–0.3 kPa when the horizontal distance of the penetrometer was in the range of 56.8–66 mm. The pressure levels are much smaller than the ones obtained in the constrained tests and may suggest that the pressure distribution under field conditions is small at a distance of 25.4 mm or higher from the tip of the cone.The experimental data were statistically analyzed to identify significant factors. The results of the analysis for the constrained test indicated that the mold diameter and number of blows significantly increased the pressure readings within the soil mass. Increasing the mold diameter led to a decrease in the average radial pressure and increasing the number of blows contributed to an increase in the average radial pressure. In the unconstrained test, the average radial pressure distribution at a given point were significantly influenced by the horizontal distance of the point from the vertical axis passing through the center of the penetrometer shaft, soil type, and soil moisture content. Higher pressure values were obtained in the Capay clay tests compared to the Yolo loam tests. In all cases, the pressure levels were greater for the drier soil than for the moist soil.     

Laboratory experimental study of tire tractive performance on soft soil: Towing mode,traction mode,and multi-pass effect

Tire tractive performance, soil behavior under the traffic, and multi-pass effect are among the key topics in the research of vehicle off-road dynamics. As an extension of the study (He et al., 2019a), this paper documents the testing of a tire moving on soft soil in the traction mode or towing mode, with a single pass or multiple passes, and presents the testing results mainly from the aspects of tire tractive performance parameters, soil behavior parameters, and multi-pass effect on these parameters. The influence of tire inflation pressure, initial soil compaction, tire normal load, or the number of passes on the test data has been analyzed; for some of the tests, the analysis was completed statistically. A multi-pass effect phenomenon, different from any phenomenon recorded in the available existing literature, was discovered and related to the ripple formation and soil failure. The research results of this paper can be considered groundwork for tire off-road dynamics and the development of traction controllers for vehicles on soft soil.     

Soil compaction patterns caused by off-road vehicles in eastern canadian agricultural soils

The interaction between vehicles and soils of varying properties and moisture contents can cause serious compaction and soil structure problems. This situation always confronts the farmer, who has to deal with the soil effects, and should be of foremost interest to agricultural machine manufacturers and dealers as well as other off-road vehicle users in order that they may employ the best vehicle configuration for various conditions.This study is oriented towards evaluating compaction behaviour under various loads, different soil conditions, number of passes, and tire sizes. Contour plots of change in dry density compared to the original density were obtained under the tire path cross sections for different loads, number of passes and soil moisture conditions.The increase in dry density change, determined for different numbers of passes, was sharp up to five passes and levelled off for further increases in the number of passes. Increase in dry density became as great as 30 pcf (0.48 g/cm³), illustrating the detrimental effect of repeated passes of a vehicle in the field.     

Measurement of contact area, contact pressure and compaction under tires in soft soil

This paper reports about measurements of the contact area of agricultuural tires in a soil bin. Four tires of the dimensions 12.5/80-18, 13.6–28, 16.9–34 and 16.9–26 were tested on a soft sandy loam. Because the existing models for predicting the footprint are complicated, a simplified model has been established, yielding good results. Measured different contact areas of all four tires are nearly constant related to wheel load except for a small increase at higher loads. Using rated loads and applying the appropriate inflation pressure, the ground pressure of a group of similar tires in loose sandy loam is independent of the tire dimensions. Measured soil compaction under at tire a various wheel loads is compared with results obtained by a mathematical model.     

Tire footprint characteristics as a function of soil properties and tire operations

The main objective of the following presentation is to examine the possibility of predicting agricultural tire footprint parameters under different operational conditions. The experimental part of the research involved the operation of two agricultural transport tires on two soils, under variations of tire load, inflation pressures and soil moisture contents. Results obtained show that tire footprint parameters, such as contact area, length, width and sinkage, can be reliably predicted using multifactorial linear and total regressions, within the range of recommended tire loads, inflation pressures and soil moisture contents around the plastic limit.     

Effect of wetting and drying on soil physical properties

Agricultural soils are subject to seasonal wetting and drying cycles. Effect of drying stress, as influenced by one cycle of wetting and drying, on physical properties of a clay–loam soil was investigated in the laboratory. The physical properties studied were soil bulk density, cone penetration resistance, shear strength, adhesion and aggregate size and stability. Three drying stress treatments were made by wetting air-dried soil of initial moisture content of 12% (on dry weight basis) to three different higher moisture contents, namely 27, 33 and 40%, and then drying each of them back to their original moisture content of 12%. Thus, the soil was subjected to three different degrees of drying stress. The results showed that the soil strength indicated by cone penetration resistance and cohesion, and soil aggregate size, increased with the degree of drying stress. However, the soil bulk density did not change significantly with the drying stress.     

Total axle load effects on soil compaction

Theoretical and applied research has shown that the pressure at a point in the subsurface soil is a function of both the surface unit pressure and the extent of the area over which it is applied (total load). Thirty years ago, most of the soil compaction from vehicle traffic was in the plow layer and was removed by normal cultural practices. As equipment has increased in size and mass, machine designers have increased tire sizes to keep the soil surface unit pressure relatively constant. However, the increase in total axle loads is believed to have caused an increase in compaction at any given depth in the soil profile, resulting in significant compaction in the subsoil.Two tires of different sizes, a standard agricultural tire and a flotation tire were used to support equal loads. Soil pressures were measured at three depths in the soil profile directly beneath each of the tires. Two soils were used and each was prepared first in a uniform density profile, and then they were prepared with a simulated traffic pan (layer of higher density) at a depth of approximately 30 cm.Results showed that the presence of a traffic pan in the soil profile caused higher soil pressures above the pan and lower pressures below it than was the case for a uniform soil profile. The soil contact surface of the flotation tire was approximately 22% greater than the agricultural tire. The greater contact surface did reduce soil pressures at the soil surface, of course, but the total axle load was still the dominant factor in the 18–50 cm-depth range used in this study.     

Dynamic load and inflation pressure effects on contact pressures of a forestry forwarder tire

A Trelleborg Twin 421 Mark II 600/55-26.5 steel-reinforced bias-ply forwarder drive tire at inflation pressures of 100 and 240 kPa and dynamic loads of 23.9 and 40 kN was used at 5% travel reduction on a firm clay soil. Effects of dynamic load and inflation pressure on soil–tire contact pressures were determined using six pressure transducers mounted on the tire tread. Three were mounted on the face of a lug and three at corresponding locations on the undertread. Contact angles increased with decreases in inflation pressure and increases in dynamic load. Contact pressures on a lug at the edge of the tire increased as dynamic load increased. Mean and peak pressures on the undertread generally were less than those on a lug. The peak pressures on a lug occurred forward of the axle in nearly all combinations of dynamic load, inflation pressure, and pressure sensor location, and peak pressures on the undertread occurred to the rear of the axle in most of the combinations. Ratios of the peak contact pressure to the inflation pressure ranged from 0 at the edge of the undertread for three combinations of dynamic load and inflation pressure to 8.39 for the pressure sensor on a lug, near the tire centerline, when the tire was underinflated. At constant dynamic load, net traction and tractive efficiency decreased as inflation pressure increased.     

Steering forces on undriven tractor wheel

The steering forces on an undriven, angled wheel mounting a 6-16 8PR tire were measured on a wheel test carriage at zero camber angle and at 1.5 km/h forward speed in a soil bin with sandy clay loam soil. The lateral force developed was found to be a function of slip angle, normal load, and inflation pressure for a particular soil condition. An exponential relationship could estimate the coefficient of lateral force of the 6-16 tire. The coefficients of this equation were found to be linearly related to inflation pressure. Rolling resistance of the wheel tested was found to be a function of slip angle, normal load, and inflation pressure for the soil condition tested. A linear relationship existed between the rolling resistance and slip angle, where the coefficients were found to be a function of inflation pressure and normal load. The generalized equations developed in the present study for estimating coefficients of lateral force and rolling resistance by taking both the tire and operating parameters into account, were found to be reasonably good by looking at the high coefficient of determination between experimental and estimated values.     

Tire and soil effects on power loss: Measurement and comparison with finite element model results

In the present study, the effect of vertical load, tire inflation pressure and soil moisture content on power loss in tire under controlled soil bin conditions were investigated. Also a finite element model of tire-soil interaction in order to achieve a suitable model for predicting power loss in tire was created. Increasing the vertical load on the tire had a noteworthy impact on increasing the tire contact volume with the soil, reducing the percentage of slip, and increasing the rolling resistance; although, reducing the load on the tire had the opposite effect. At a constant inflation pressure, by increasing the vertical load on the tire, the amount of power loss due to the rolling resistance and the total power loss in the tire increased. Increase in soil moisture content increased the power loss caused by slip. Increasing the inflation pressure at a constant vertical load, also increasing the soil moisture content, led to an increase in the power loss caused by rolling resistance, and increase total power loss. The obtained error for estimating power loss of rolling resistance and total power loss was satisfactory and confirmed the acceptability of the model for power loss estimation.     

Evaluation of penetrometers for measuring soil strength

Cone index, as determined by a cone penetrometer, is frequently used as a measure of soil strength. The index is a compound parameter involving components of shear, compressive and tensile strength and soil metal friction. In order to assess the effect of soil type and condition on the relative contributions of these components to penetration resistance, the forces required to push blunt and sharp probes into two soils under a range of moisture contents and bulk densities were investigated. The maximum penetration force in homogeneous soil was not uniquely related to dry bulk density or cohesion, but varied with soil moisture content.At high and low moisture contents, the soil tended to interact with the shaft of the penetrometer thus increasing the resistance to penetration. At low moisture content, bodies of compressed soil formed in front of the probe, effectively changing the probe geometry.It was concluded that interpretation of cone index in typical layered field soils is difficult. Even in homogeneous soils, the proportion of shear, compressive and tensile components that the cone index reflects varies with soil condition.