Politically Motivated Reinforcement Seeking: Reframing the Selective Exposure Debate

This article seeks to reframe the selective exposure debate by demonstrating that people exhibit a preference for opinion‐reinforcing political information without systematically avoiding opinion challenges. The results are based on data collected in a national random‐digit‐dial telephone survey (n = 1,510) conducted prior to the 2004 U.S. presidential election. Analyses show that Americans use the control afforded by online information sources to increase their exposure to opinions consistent with their own views without sacrificing contact with other opinions. This observation contradicts the common assumption that reinforcement seeking and challenge avoidance are intrinsically linked aspects of the selective exposure phenomenon. This distinction is important because the consequences of challenge avoidance are significantly more harmful to democratic deliberation than those of reinforcement seeking.     

Reinforcement of the Political Self Through Selective Exposure to Political Messages

The idea that recipients prefer messages that reinforce preexisting attitudes and self‐perceptions has pervaded much communication research, but effects of selective exposure are rarely examined. This 2‐session experiment (n = 157) investigates such effects. The first session presented computerized questions on 12 political issue attitudes and political self‐concept. Accessibility data were collected based on response times. In the second session, participants browsed through an online magazine including 4 of the 12 issues, each issue being covered by 2 articles featuring opposing viewpoints. Selective exposure was logged and categorized as attitude‐consistent or counterattitudinal. Finally, a questionnaire repeated measures for attitudes and self‐concept. The results show that participants preferred attitude‐consistent over counterattitudinal messages, which strengthened the political self‐concept through increased accessibility.     

The Impact of Political Talk Radio Exposure on Attributions About the Outcome of the 1996 U.S. Presidential Election

This study investigates the media's potential to affect audiences' interpretations of news events. It compares perceptions of the causes of the 1996 presidential election outcome across four media consumption groups: listeners to the program of Rush Limbaugh, listeners to other political talk radio, consumers of mainstream news media, and nonconsumers of news media. Limbaugh listeners were more likely to discount substantive election explanations than were consumers of other types of political talk radio, consumers of mainstream news media, and nonconsumers of news media. These differences in interpretation parallel differences between the content of his program and that of other media.     

Polarization and Partisan Selective Exposure

Today, people can easily select media outlets sharing their political predispositions, a behavior known as partisan selective exposure. Additional research is needed, however, to better understand the causes and consequences of partisan selective exposure. This study investigates the relationship between partisan selective exposure and political polarization using data from the National Annenberg Election Survey. Cross‐sectional results show strong evidence that partisan selective exposure is related to polarization. Over‐time analyses document that partisan selective exposure leads to polarization. Some evidence supports the reverse causal direction, namely that polarization leads to partisan selective exposure. Implications for the study of media effects and normative implications—both positive and negative—are discussed.     

Implicit and Explicit Attitudes as Predictors of Gatekeeping,Selective Exposure,and News Sharing: Testing a General Model of Media‐Related Selection

Media‐related selection (MRS) is an umbrella concept for selection processes such as gatekeeping by journalists, selective exposure by audience members, and news sharing by social network site (SNS) users. Importantly, individual attitudes can influence MRS. Previous research on attitude‐based MRS has relied almost exclusively on overtly expressed evaluations (i.e., explicit attitudes) as predictors of selection outcomes. We tested whether automatic affective evaluations (i.e., implicit attitudes) can predict MRS as well. In three studies (gatekeeping, selective exposure, and news sharing), we found that journalists', audience members', and SNS users' implicit and explicit attitudes predicted selection. Thus, attitudes may exert their influence even “under the radar” of conscious awareness.     

Adolescents' Exposure to Sexually Explicit Online Material and Recreational Attitudes Toward Sex

Previous research has largely ignored the implications of adolescents' exposure to sexually explicit online material for their sexual attitude formation. To study whether adolescents' exposure to sexually explicit material on the Internet is related to recreational attitudes toward sex, we conducted an online survey among 471 Dutch adolescents aged 13–18. In line with an orientation 1 – stimulus – orientation 2 – response (O₁-S-O₂-R) model, we found a pattern of multiple mediated relationships. Male adolescents (O₁) used sexually explicit online material (S) more than female adolescents, which led to a greater perceived realism of such material (O₂). Perceived realism (O₂), in turn, mediated the relationship between exposure to sexually explicit online material (S) and recreational attitudes toward sex (R). Exposure to sexually explicit online material, then, is related to more recreational attitudes toward sex, but this relationship is influenced by adolescents' gender and mediated by the extent to which they perceive online sexual material as realistic.     

The Role of Actors' Race in White Audiences' Selective Exposure to Movies

Movie producers are often reluctant to cast more than a few minority actors in otherwise race‐neutral movies for fear that the White audience will largely avoid such films. Two experiments were conducted to test the idea that the racial makeup of a cast could influence White audiences' selective exposure to movies. Results revealed that actors' race does influence selective exposure in certain contexts. For nonromantic movies, participants' racial attitudes moderated the relationship between race and selective exposure. For romantic movies, regardless of racial attitudes, White participants showed significantly less interest in seeing movies with mostly Black casts than in seeing movies with mostly White casts. These findings are discussed in light of both social identity theory and social cognitive theory.     

Who Cares About the Issues? Issue Voting and the Role of News Media During the 2000 U.S. Presidential Election

Analyzing data from the 2000 American National Election Study, we examined the role of news media in facilitating issue voting. We found that respondents who paid greater attention to news coverage of the election were more likely to hold specific opinions on campaign issues. Voters who devoted greater attention to news media were also more aware of where each candidate stood on various policy issues. These two political cognitions (issue opinionation and knowledge of candidate issue positions) were important conditions for issue voting. We found that those who devoted greater attention to news media were more concerned about the issues when making electoral choices. Beyond and above demographic predispositions, we conclude that issue voting is also a function of paying attention to news media.     

Young Voters' Responses to the 2004 U.S. Presidential Election: Social Identity,Perceived Media Influence,and Behavioral Outcomes

Hostile news perceptions, perceived media influence, and behavioral outcomes among Republicans and Democrats were examined before and after the 2004 U.S. presidential election. Predictions were grounded in social identity/self‐categorization theories, and influence of presumed influence. Hostile news perceptions were greater among Republicans, especially Fox News viewers. Third‐person perceptions (TPPs) for ingroup and outgroup (own party, other party) varied based on media message (debates, news, spin, polls, comedy) and party affiliation. TPPs were larger for the outgroup than the ingroup, but only for Republicans. Following the election, changes in media perceptions were related to the election outcome and interpersonal discussion. Greater perceived influence on outgroup voters was associated with stronger support for censorship, and a lower voting likelihood among Democrats.     

Explicating Media Salience: A Factor Analysis of New York Times Issue Coverage During the 2000 U.S. Presidential Election

Media salience—the key independent variable in agenda-setting research—has traditionally been explicated as a singular construct. Nevertheless, scholars have defined and measured it using a number of different conceptualizations and empirical indicators. To address this limitation in research, this study introduced a conceptual model of media salience, suggesting it is a multidimensional construct consisting of 3 core elements: attention, prominence, and valence. Furthermore, the model was tested through an exploratory factor analysis of The New York Times news coverage of 8 major political issues during the 2000 presidential election as a case study. The data revealed that 2 dimensions of media salience emerge: visibility and valence. Based on the factor analysis, 2 indices are created to measure the construct, which are intended for use in future investigations.     

Characterizing Mood Management as Need Satisfaction: The Effects of Intrinsic Needs on Selective Exposure and Mood Repair

This study attempted to (a) extend traditional mood management theory research by investigating the influence of the intrinsic needs for competence and autonomy on selective exposure to video games and (b) test the influence of satisfying these needs on resultant mood repair. An experiment varied satisfaction of competence and autonomy needs using false feedback. Subjects then selected media that varied in level of user demand. Measures of need satisfaction were taken before and after media selection. Results demonstrated that (a) thwarted intrinsic needs significantly predict the choice of video games with different levels of user demand and (b) the satisfaction of these needs predicts enjoyment. Findings indicate that mood management can result from mood repair through need satisfaction.     

To Your Health: Self‐Regulation of Health Behavior Through Selective Exposure to Online Health Messages

Reaching target audiences is of crucial importance for the success of health communication campaigns, but individuals may avoid health messages if they challenge their beliefs or behaviors. A lab study (N = 419) examined effects of messages' consistency with participants' behavior and source credibility on selective exposure for 4 health lifestyle topics. Drawing on self‐regulation theory and dissonance theory, 3 motivations were examined: self‐bolstering, self‐motivating, and self‐defending. Prior behavior predicted selective exposure across topics, reflecting self‐bolstering. Standard‐behavior discrepancies also affected selective exposure, consistent with self‐motivating rather than self‐defending. Selective exposure to high‐credibility sources advocating for organic food, fruits and vegetable consumption, exercise, and limiting coffee all fostered accessibility of related standards, whereas messages from low‐credibility sources showed no such impact.     

Design and Calibration of a mm-Wave Personal Exposure Meter for 5G Exposure Assessment in Indoor Diffuse Environments

For the first time, a mm-wave personal exposure meter (mm-PEM) for the 5th generation of mobile networks (5G) exposure assessment in indoor diffuse fields is presented. The design is based on simulations and on-phantom calibration measurements in a mm-wave reverberation chamber (RC) at 60 GHz. The mm-PEM consists of an array of nine antennas on the body. Using the mm-PEM, the incident power density (IPD) is measured in the unloaded RC, for the antenna(s) on the phantom and RC loaded with phantom. The uncertainty of the mm-PEM is then determined in terms of its response, which is defined as the ratio of antenna aperture for the above measurement scenarios. Using nine antennas, the designed meter has a response of 1.043 (0.17 dB) at 60 GHz, which is very close to 1 (0 dB), the desired ideal response value. The mm-PEM measured an IPD of 96.6 W m^??2 at 60 GHz in the RC, for an input power of 1 W. In addition, the average absorption cross-section of the phantom is determined as 225 cm², which is an excellent agreement with its physical dimensions.     

Children's Sex-Stereotyped Self-Socialization Through Selective Exposure to Entertainment: Cross-Cultural Experiments in Germany, China, and the United States

Chinese, German, and U.S. American 4- to 6-year-old boys and girls were asked to select videos of children stories that they would most like to see. Choices were either between pairs of story videos presenting aggressive versus peaceful, nurturing content, with male or female sex of story protagonists held constant, or between pairs of videos featuring male versus female protagonists, with aggressive or peaceful story content held constant. Across countries/cultures, boys showed a strong preference for aggressive stories; girls for peaceful, nurturing ones. Again across countries/cultures, both sexes favored stories featuring protagonists of their own sex. However, the preference for same-sex story protagonists was particularly strong in American and Chinese girls. In comparison, American and Chinese boys showed only a moderate preference for male characters.     

Retrospective Versus Prospective Statements and Outcome of Presidential Elections

This study investigates retrospective and prospective voting from a communication perspective, looking to see whether there is relationship between election outcome and the relative emphasis U.S. presidential candidates place on retrospective (past) versus prospective (future) utterances in campaign messages. The sample includes a variety of presidential campaign messages (acceptance addresses, primary and general television spots, debates, direct mail advertising) from several campaigns (1948–2004) by numerous candidates. In the primary phase of the campaign, there is no difference between winners and losers in relative emphasis on retrospective and prospective statements. However, in the general phase of the presidential campaign, winners use a significantly larger proportion of retrospective (and a smaller proportion of prospective) utterances than losers. Furthermore, the relationship between emphasis on retrospective utterances and election outcome was larger for incumbents than challengers (but significant for both types of candidates). These findings support retrospective voting in the general, but not the primary, campaign.     

Dynamic Spirals Put to Test: An Agent-Based Model of Reinforcing Spirals Between Selective Exposure,Interpersonal Networks,and Attitude Polarization

Within the context of partisan selective exposure and attitude polarization, this study investigates a mutually reinforcing spiral model, aiming to clarify mechanisms and boundary conditions that affect spiral processes—interpersonal agreement and disagreement, and the ebb and flow of message receptions. Utilizing agent-based modeling (ABM) simulations, the study formally models endogenous dynamics of cumulative processes and its reciprocal effect of media choice behavior over extended periods of time. Our results suggest that interpersonal discussion networks, in conjunction with election contexts, condition the reciprocal effect of selective media exposure and its attitudinal consequences. Methodologically, results also highlight the analytical utility of computational social science approaches in overcoming the limitations of typical experimental and observations studies.     

Please Your Self: Social Identity Effects on Selective Exposure to News About In‐ and Out‐Groups

Hypotheses were tested in a secondary data analysis of an experiment on selective exposure to positive and negative news articles about same‐ and differently aged individuals. A sample of 178 young (18–30 years) and 98 older adults (50–65 years) browsed an online news magazine while reading times were logged by software. Younger individuals (high status, high uncertainty) generally focused their reading on same‐aged individuals, with a preference on positive news about this in‐group. Older recipients (low‐status, low uncertainty) were more likely to select negative news about young individuals than positive news about this out‐group and negative news about older individuals. Furthermore, exposure to negative news about younger individuals bolstered older recipients' self‐esteem.     

Design of a Multiband Frequency Selective Surface

A frequency selective surface (FSS), whose unit cell consists of a ternary tree loop loaded with a modified tripole, is proposed to block multiple frequency bands. Target frequency bands correspond to Korean personal communication services, cellular mobile communication, and 2.4 GHz industrial, scientific, and medical bands. Through the adjustment of inter‐element and inter‐unit cell gaps, and adjustment of the length of elements, we present an FSS design method that makes the precise tuning of multiple resonance frequencies possible. Additionally, to verify the validity of our approach, simulation results obtained from a commercial software tool and experimental data are also presented.     

Reinforcement of a PDMS master using an oxide-coated silicon plate

In this work, a new method was developed to increase the stiffness of Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) masters using oxide-coated silicon plates, aimed at reducing the residual and deflecting deformations of the PDMS masters for proper pattern transfer. Using this method, these two types of deformations in the reinforced PDMS master have been reduced.