Heat Transfer Characteristics for Condensation of R134a in a Vertical Smooth Tube

In this study, condensation of pure refrigerant R134a vapor inside a smooth vertical tube was experimentally investigated. The test section was made of a copper tube with inside diameter of 7.52 mm and length of 1 m. Experimental tests were conducted for mass fluxes in the range of 20–175 kg/m²s with saturation pressure ranging between 5.8 and 7 bar. The effects of mass flux, saturation pressure, and temperature difference between the refrigerant and tube inner wall (ΔT) on the heat transfer performance were analyzed through experimental data. Obtained results showed that average condensation heat transfer coefficient decreases with increasing saturation pressure or temperature difference (ΔT). In addition, for the same temperature difference (ΔT), heat can be removed from the refrigerant at a higher rate at relatively low pressure values. Under the same operating conditions, it was shown that average condensation heat transfer coefficient increases as mass flux increases. Finally, the most widely used heat transfer coefficient correlations for condensation inside smooth tubes were analyzed through the experimental data. The best fit was obtained with Akers et al.'s (1959) correlation with an absolute mean deviation of 22.6%.     

Condensation heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics of R-134a inside the flattened tubes at high mass flux and different saturation temperature

In this study, heat transfer coefficients and pressure drops of R-134a inside round and flat tubes are investigated experimentally with mass flux of 450, 550, and 650 kg m^?2 s^?1 at saturation temperatures of 35°, 40°, and 45°C. The effects of mass flux and saturation temperature on heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop are examined. The maximum enhancement factor and pressure drop penalty are obtained by flat tube (FT-2) up to 2.101 at 450 kg m^?2 s^?1 and 3.01 at 650 kg m^?2 s^?1, respectively. The correlation for flat tubes is proposed to predict the heat transfer coefficient within ±20% error.     

Influence of nucleation on the flow boiling heat transfer coefficient of a refrigerant mixture under varied heat flux conditions

The influence of nucleation on the flow boiling heat transfer coefficient of R-134a/R-290/R-600a refrigerant mixture is experimentally studied in a smooth horizontal tube of 12.7 mm diameter. The heat transfer coefficients are experimentally measured for stratified flow patterns under a varied heat flux condition; a condition found in the evaporator of refrigerators and deep freezers. The experiments are conducted in a counter-current heat exchanger test section. By regulating the flow rate and inlet temperature of acetone, which is the heating fluid flowing in the outer tube, a varied heat flux is provided to the refrigerant flowing in the inner tube. The refrigerant mass flow rate is fixed between 3 and 5 g s⁻¹ and its inlet temperature between −8.59 and 5.33°C, which corresponds to a pressure of 3.2 to 5 bar. The significance of nucleate boiling prevailing in the above-mentioned evaporators is highlighted. The experimental heat transfer coefficients are also compared with well known heat transfer correlations.     

Forced Convective Condensation of R134A Vapor Inside a Vertical Microfin Tube

In this study, condensation of pure refrigerant R134a vapor inside a vertical 18° helical microfin tube was experimentally investigated. Tests were performed at saturation pressure of 5.7–5.9 bar with mass fluxes of 20–100 kg/m²s and heat fluxes of 1.7–5.3 kW/m². The effects of mass flux and the temperature difference between the refrigerant and tube wall (ΔT) on the heat transfer performance were analyzed throughout experimental data. For experiments in which ΔT is more than 2.5°C, the average condensation Nusselt number showed a tendency to be independent from ΔT. Heat transfer enhancement ratio was found to be 1.59–1.71, which is always higher than the heat transfer area enhancement factor (1.55). Fins always act as a turbulence promoter in the given experimental data range. Finally, the most widely used heat transfer coefficient correlations for condensation inside microfin tubes were analyzed through the experimental data. Best fit was obtained with Yu and Koyama's correlation with an absolute mean deviation of 17% and Kedzierski and Goncalves's correlation with an absolute mean deviation of 19%.     

R32/R134a在微通道内流动沸腾特性

研究非共沸混合工质R32/R134a(质量比,25%/75%)在水平微尺度通道内流动沸腾换热规律。在各种工况下进行了非共沸混合工质R32/R134a在水平微尺度管道内流动沸腾换热的实验,考察了质量流量G、热流密度q、质量干度x对微尺度通道内流动沸腾换热系数的影响。研究表明:在热流密度、质量流量都较低的区域,对细管道,换热系数与热流密度的关联度较大;而对微管道,换热系数受影响的因素比较多,并在干度为0.6时出现"干涸"现象,使得换热系数急剧下降。在质量流量高的区域,对细管道,热流密度对换热系数的影响很小;而对微尺度管道,当干度为0.06时换热系数发生转变,随质量干度的增加先减小后增大,热流密度增大到一定的阶段后,换热系数不再随热流密度变化。     

R11/R134a混合工质管束外沸腾传热的EHD强化试验研究

采用EHD强化技术对R11/R134a混合工质进行管束外沸腾传热的试验研究,以试验所获得的大量数据为基础,分析了电场电压、热流密度与换热系数、强化系数之间的关系,并重点分析了不同工质组分对EHD强化效果的影响,为探索EHD强化沸腾换热的机理以及将其推广到工程应用提供了一定依据。     

Flow condensing heat transfer of R410A,R22, and R32 inside a micro-fin tube

An experimental study of condensation heat transfer characteristics of flow inside horizontal micro-fin tubes is carried out using R410A, R22, and R32 as the test fluids. This study especially focuses on the influence of heat transfer area upon the condensation heat transfer coefficients. The test sections were made of double tubes using the counter-flow type; the refrigerants condensation inside the test tube enabled heat to exchange with cooling water that flows from the annular side. The saturation temperature and pressure of the refrigerants were measured at the inlet and outlet of the test sections to defined state of refrigerants, and the surface temperatures of the tube were measured. A differential pressure transducer directly measured the pressure drops in the test section. The heat transfer coefficients and pressure drops were calculated using the experimental data. The condensation heat transfer coefficient was measured at the saturation temperature of 48°C with mass fluxes of 50–380 kg/(m²s) and heat fluxes of 3–12 kW/m². The values of experimental heat transfer coefficient results are compared with the predicted values from the existing correlations in the literature, and a new condensation heat transfer coefficient correlation is proposed.     

Effect of Coolant Temperature on the Condensation Heat Transfer in Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Applications

This article directly investigates the effect of a cooling medium's coolant temperature on the condensation of the refrigerant R-134a. The study presents an experimental investigation into condensation heat transfer, vapor quality, and pressure drop of R-134a flowing through a commercial annular helicoidal pipe under the severe climatic conditions of a Kuwait summer. The quality of the refrigerant is calculated using the temperature and pressure obtained from the experiment. Measurements were performed for refrigerant mass fluxes ranging from 50 to 650 kg/m²s, with a cooling water flow Reynolds number range of 950 to 15,000 at a fixed gas saturation temperature of 42°C and cooling wall temperatures of 5°C, 10°C, and 20°C. The data shows that with an increase of refrigerant mass flux, the overall condensation heat transfer coefficients of R-134a increased, and the pressure drops also increased. However, with the increase of mass flux of cooling water, the refrigerant-side heat transfer coefficients decreased. Using low mass flux in a helicoidal tube improves the heat transfer coefficient. Furthermore, selecting low wall temperature for the cooling medium gives a higher refrigerant-side heat transfer coefficient.     

Experimental Investigation of Saturated Flow Boiling Heat Transfer to TiO2/R141b Nanorefrigerant

Heat transfer in two-phase flow boiling of a dilute mixture of TiO₂ nanoparticles in R141b base fluid in a smooth tube is investigated experimentally. Examining the obtained results reveals that enhancement of the convective heat transfer coefficient for the particle volume fractions of 0.01% and 0.03% in comparison with pure R141b is more pronounced for a higher volume fraction. The measured data also show that at higher vapor qualities, the improvement in heat transfer coefficient is greater. Moreover, the heat transfer coefficient decreases substantially with mass flux while an increase in saturation temperature leads to an improvement in this coefficient.     

超临界R134a水平圆管内冷却换热模拟研究

采用增强壁面函数的标准k-ε模型对超临界R134a水平圆管内冷却换热进行了模拟研究.分析了管内不同截面上流体温度、速度和湍动能的分布情况及对应关系。研究了质量流量和浮升力对换热系数的影响。结果表明,流体速度随着温度的降低而减小,并且最大速度处对应着最高温度和最小湍动能.换热系数随着质量流量的增加而增大,其峰值出现在准临界温度附近。浮升力在似液体区的影响较大,对流体换热起到增强的效果。     

Experimental Investigation of Heat Transfer in Two-phase Flow Boiling

In this article, an experimental investigation is performed to measure the boiling heat transfer coefficient of water flow in a microchannel with a hydraulic diameter of 500 μm. Experimental tests are conducted with heat fluxes ranging from 100 to 400 kW/m², vapor quality from 0 to 0.2, and mass fluxes of 200, 400, and 600 kg/m²s. Also, this study has modified the liquid Froude number to present a flow pattern transition toward an annular flow. Experimental results show that the flow boiling heat transfer coefficient is not dependent on mass flux and vapor quality but on heat flux to a certain degree. The measured heat transfer coefficient is compared with a few available correlations proposed for macroscales, and it is found that previous correlations have overestimated the flow boiling heat transfer coefficient for the test conditions considered in this work. This article proposes a new correlation model regarding the boiling heat transfer coefficient in mini- and microchannels using boiling number, Reynolds number, and modified Froude number.     

Flow boiling heat transfer of refrigerant R21 in microchannel heat sink

Boiling heat transfer in a refrigerant R 21 flow in a microchannel heat sink is studied. A stainless steel heat sink with a length of 120 mm contains ten microchannels with a size of 640×2050 μm at cross-section with a wall roughness of 10 μm. The local heat-transfer coefficient distribution along the heat sink length is obtained. The ranges of parameters are: mass flow from 68 to 172 kg/m²s, heat fluxes from 16 to 152 kW/m², and vapor quality from 0 to 1. The maximum values of the heat transfer coefficient are observed at the inlet of microchannels. The heat transfer coefficients decrease substantially along the length of channels under high heat flux conditions and, on the contrary, change insignificantly under low heat flux condition. A comparison with the well-known models of flow boiling heat transfer is performed and the range of applicability is defined.     

泡沫金属对含油制冷剂管内流动沸腾换热特性的影响

实验研究了制冷剂-润滑油混合流体在内嵌泡沫金属圆管内流动沸腾的换热特性。泡沫金属为10ppi、90%孔隙率;制冷剂为R410A,润滑油为VG68,油浓度为0～5%。实验结果表明:纯制冷剂工况下,泡沫金属强化流动沸腾换热系数,换热系数提高30%～120%;含油工况下,泡沫金属只强化流动沸腾换热系数20%以下,在低质流密度或者高质流密度的高干度情况下出现恶化换热的情况。润滑油总是恶化制冷剂在内嵌泡沫金属圆管内流动沸腾的换热系数,换热系数最多恶化71%,且在低质流密度下对换热的恶化比在高质流密度工况下严重。     

Single-Phase Convective Heat Transfer of Water and Aqua Ethylene Glycol Mixture in a Small-Diameter Tube

A tailor-made convective heat transfer test facility is constructed to study the single-phase convective heat transfer of deionized water and 30 vol% and 60 vol% aqua–ethylene glycol in a stainless steel tube of 4 mm in inner diameter and 1 m in length. The heat flux is varied between 1 and 4 kW·m^?2 and for mass flux ranging from 160 to 475 kg·m^?2 s^?1. The experiments were predominantly conducted only for laminar flow regime. Finally, the heat transfer coefficient is recorded and compared with the conventional theories. It is observed that the presence of ethylene glycol in water decreases the heat transfer coefficient by more than 50%, due to the decreased Reynolds number and thermal conductivity of the mixture.     

非共沸工质R134a /R245fa的管内冷凝换热特性研究

为研究非共沸工质的冷凝换热特性,本文基于Nusselt理论,建立了竖直圆管内非共沸混合蒸汽的冷凝模型,研究了不同质量比例的R134a/R245fa在不同条件下的冷凝换热特性,结果表明:混合蒸汽质量比例不同,两种组分的露点温度不同,混合物的冷凝特性不同,低沸点组分的气-液相份额差是表征传质阻力的关键因素;混合蒸汽质量比例、质量流速、壁面温度、压力是影响非共沸混合工质冷凝换热的重要因素。     

R410A与R22在水平微翅管内流动沸腾传热特性研究

建立了水平管流动沸腾试验台,采用恒热流加热方法,对 R410A 在水平微翅管内流动沸腾特性进行了实验研究,分析了影响 R410A 在水平微翅管内换热系数的因素,考察了工质质量流量、热流密度、质量干度以及微翅管的几何参数对工质的流动沸腾换热性能的影响关系.通过对比 R410A 与 R22 的实验数据,分析比较二者的换热系数,结果表明R410A 与 R22 相差不大,R22 比 R410A 的换热系数大约高 7.5%.     

COMBINED EFFECTS OF SUBCOOLING AND SURFACE ORIENTATION ON POOL BOILING OF HFE-7100 FROM A SIMULATED ELECTRONIC CHIP

The effects of orientation and subcooling on pool boiling of the HFE-7100 dielectric liquid near atmospheric pressure (0.085 MPa) from a 10 × 10 mm smooth copper surface are investigated experimentally. Results are obtained for inclination angles θ = 0° (upward-facing), 30°, 60°, 90°, 120°, 150°, and 180° (downward-facing) and liquid subcoolings ΔT_sub = 0, 10, 20, and 30 K. Increasing θ decreases the saturation nucleate boiling heat flux at high surface superheats (ΔT_sat > 20 K), but increases it only slightly at lower surface superheats. The critical heat flux (CHF) decreases slowly with increasing θ from 0° to 90°, and then deceases faster with increasing θ to 180°. CHF increases linearly with increased subcooling, but the rate increases from 0.016 K^?1 at 0° to 0.048 K^?1 at 180°. At θ = 0° and ΔT_sub = 30 K, CHF is ～ 36 W/cm² and 24.45 W/cm² for saturation boiling, while at θ = 180° CHF = 10.85 W/cm² at ΔT_sub = 30 K and only 4.30 W/cm² at saturation. The developed correlation for CHF of HFE-7100, as a function of θ and ΔT_sub, is within ±10% of the present data. The recorded still photographs of the boiling surface in the experiments illustrate the effects of liquid subcooling and surface orientation at different nucleate boiling heat fluxes and surface superheats on vapor bubble accumulation and/or induced mixing at the surface.     

A Study on Nucleate Boiling Heat Transfer Characteristics of Acetone on Smooth and Indented Surfaces

This article presents the nucleate boiling heat transfer characteristics of acetone at one bar on smooth and enhanced circular stainless steel surfaces (SS 316) of 20 mm diameter for heat flux between 1 and 4 W cm^? 2, which mimic the operating condition of a typical immersion electronic cooling system. The experimental heat transfer coefficient from the smooth surface is validated against Borishanski correlation [1] within acceptable limits of ± 5%. The steel smooth surface is enhanced by providing 100 equally spaced indents of 0.5 mm diameter and 0.05 mm depth. The experimental results indicate that the enhanced surface shows a good shift in the boiling curve and thus, enhancing the nucleate boiling heat transfer at a lesser wall super heat when compared to the smooth surface by around 35% for tested condition. The effect of subcooling on nucleate boiling in enhanced surface reveal that the heat transfer coefficient degrade by 40 to 55% for a sub cooling of 5 to 10 K. The influence of material is studied by a similar enhanced surface made of brass and compared for the same working condition. The brass enhanced surface showed an improved of around 50% against the steel-enhanced surface. Also, the influence of fluid is studied by comparing acetone and n-pentane, which showed that the latter an enhancement in heat transfer coefficient of 50% over the former.     

微尺度水平管内沸腾换热特性研究

对不同质量分数下非共沸混合工质(R134a/R32)在微尺度管道内的流动沸腾换热特性进行了比较和分析,阐述了热流密度、质量流量和质量干度对换热的影响。结果表明:热流密度对换热的影响随着质量流量的增加而愈加明显;在质量分数为75%/25%和65%/35%时,换热系数随着质量流量的增大而增大;而质量分数为85%/15%时,换热系数随质量流量的变化先增加后减小;随着质量干度的增加,换热系数在各质量分数下基本上都呈上升趋势。     

Experimental investigation of flow boiling heat transfer enhancement under ultrasound fields in a minichannel heat sink

Ultrasound is considered to be an effective active heat transfer enhancement method, which is widely used in various fields. But there is no clear understanding of flow boiling heat transfer characteristics in micro/mini-channels under ultrasonic field since the studies related are limited up to now. In this paper, a novel minichannel heat exchanger with two ultrasonic transducers inside the inlet and outlet plenum respectively is designed to experimentally investigate the impacts of ultrasound on flow boiling heat transfer enhancement in a minichannel heat sink. Flow visualization analyses reveal that ultrasound can promote rapid bubble motion, bubble detachment from heating wall surface and thereby new bubble generation, and decrease the length of confined bubble. Furthermore, the flow boiling experiments are initiated employing working fluid R141b at different ultrasonic parameters (e.g., frequency, power, angle of radiation) and heat flux under three types of ultrasound excitations: no ultrasound (NU), single inlet ultrasound (IU), inlet and outlet ultrasound (IOU). The results indicate that ultrasound has obvious augmentation effects on flow boiling heat transfer even though the intensification effects will be limited with the heat flux increases. The higher ultrasonic power, the lower ultrasonic frequency and the higher ultrasonic radiation angle, the better intensification efficiency. The maximum enhancement ratio of h_ave in the saturated boiling section reaches 1.88 at 50 W, 23 kHz and 45° under the experimental conditions. This study will be beneficial for future applications of ultrasound on flow boiling heat transfer in micro/mini-channels.