Die Bestimmung des Frequenzfaktors und der Haftstellentiefe aus der Temperaturabhängigkeit der Elektrolumineszenz von ZnS-Phosphoren

The temperature dependence of the a.c. electroluminescence of ZnS-phosphors shows characteristic features which are closely related to the energetic distribution of traps. Measurements over a wide range of exciting field frequencies are used to determine frequency factors and trap depths with high accuracy. The order of magnitude of the obtained frequency factors agrees with theoretical values and results of other authors, who investigated CdS single crystals by different methods. The trap depths resulting from electroluminescence measurements are lower than those estimated from glow curves. This deviation can be explained by considering multiple retrapping and a low quantum efficiency of the thermoluminescence. An expression for the trap depth in dependence of the temperature of a glow maximum is derived, which is valid for all kinetics of thermoluminescence.     

Effect of the interaction among traps on the shape of thermoluminescence glow curves

The effect of the interaction among traps on the structure of thermoluminescence glow curves has been investigated by generating numerically simulated glow curves for a wide range of trap parameters. The results reported in this paper provide useful insights which assist in the analysis of experimental glow curves. The most important result shows that it is incorrect to assume beforehand that each peak is related to a specific trapping state. The validity of the quasiequilibrium approximation is briefly discussed.     

An improved experimental procedure of separating a composite thermoluminescence glow curve into its components

We present an improved experimental procedure of separating a composite thermoluminescence glow curve into its components. Careful monitoring of the isothermal cleaning process using the initial rise method ensures the complete thermal removal of TL peaks. Digital subtraction of two experimental TL glow curves yields individual experimental TL glow peaks. Several standard methods (initial rise and whole glow curve) are used to obtain the energy values and frequency factors of the traps. The method has been used successfully to analyze the well-known composite TL glow curve of the dosimetric material LiF (TLD-100). The limitations of the method are illustrated by analyzing the highly complex TL glow curve of a UV irradiated synthetic calcite consisting of at least 6 TL peaks. Although the method works best for TL glow curves described by first order kinetics, it should also be applicable to more general kinetics.     

On the analysis of complex thermoluminescence glow curves

A method for analyzing complex thermoluminescence glow curves is reported. It allows the fitting of the experimental curves with the proposed kinetic equations in such a way as to verify their capability to represent the process under examination. The values of activation energy, frequency factor and other relevant parameters can be obtained. An application is made to the glow curve of the NaCl X-irradiated at room temperature.     

A new method for the numerical analysis of thermoluminescence glow curve

A new method to analyze the thermoluminescence (TL) glow curve has been presented. It has been shown that this method is efficient and fast in generating the TL glow curves and can be adopted in a numerical curve fitting for obtaining the relevant TL parameters of a given TL glow curve data. This new method is based on a general approximation (GA) which assumes only that the concentration of the electrons in the conduction band is negligible when compared with the concentration of the electrons in the traps. The GA method has been tested against the reference glow curve data which was generated by the full iteration method without any prior approximation in the one-trap-one-recombination-centre model. By finding the best fit between the reference data and the curves generated by the GA method, the values of the kinetics parameters have been determined. Also, the general order kinetics (GOK) and the peak shape method have been examined. The fitted values of the activation energy and the initial concentration of electron by the GA method match reasonably well with the original value.     

Thermoluminescence kinetic study of binary lead-silicate glasses

This paper describes a detailed experimental study of the thermoluminescence (TL) properties of four binary lead-silicate glasses, with PbO concentrations ranging from 32% to 62% in mole percent. The TL glow peaks between room temperature and 300 °C were analyzed using a systematic thermal cleaning technique. The T_max-T_stop and E-T_stop methods of analysis were used to identify the number of peaks under the glow curves, and to obtain the activation energy E for each TL trap. A computerized glow curve fitting analysis is used to fit the experimental data to four first-order peaks with maxima at temperatures of 54, 80, 110 and 210 °C, as measured with a heating rate of 2 °C/s. The kinetic parameters of the glow-peak at 210 °C were confirmed by using phosphorescence decay methods of analysis. The TL traps associated with the low-temperature TL peak at 54 °C are found to depend strongly on the PbO concentration of the samples, while the higher-temperature TL peaks show a behavior independent of the PbO concentration. The activation energy E and frequency factor s of the low-temperature TL trap associated with the peak at 54 °C are consistent with a trap involving a delocalized transition through the conduction band. However, the activation energies and frequency factors for the higher-temperature TL traps are consistent with traps involving localized transitions via an excited state below the conduction band. The data suggest that these higher-temperature TL traps are associated with the common silicate matrix in these binary silicate glasses.     

A comparative study of thermoluminescence and isothermal destruction of radiation defects in feldspars

Up to four broad thermoluminescence emission bands were observed in X-ray irradiated feldspars of different composition. Slow decrease of emission after X-ray irradiation indicates the presence of shallow traps in most feldspars. The glow curves were also very broad; the method of Hoogenstraaten led to activation energies between 52 and 105 kJ/mol and small frequency factors around 10⁵ s^-1. Simultaneous measurements of isothermal changes in optical absorption and thermoluminescence intensity indicated transition from first to second order decay in most cases in qualitative agreement with the kinetics of defect formation by X-ray irradiation. The glow curves could also be decomposed into two curves with a first order decay preceding the second order process. The activation energies determined by both methods are in fair agreement, differences may be due to distributions of trap depths. Activation energies and the maxima of emission, absorption and photoconductivity were used for construction of energy level schemes for these radiation defects. Common excited states above the conduction band edge are suggested for all defects.     

Zur grünen Lumineszenz des Zinkoxyds

ZnO-phosphors are produced at different reduction temperatures. The hole trap density —indicated by thermoluminescence and phosphorescence — increases with increasing reduction temperature. The maximum of the emission spectrum moves to longer wavelengths with increasing temperature of the sample. Trap saturation and the first part of phosphorescence decay obey approximately exponential laws. Phosphorescence measurements indicate an important influence of retrapping processes. The coefficient for thermal hole liberation can be determined from experimental data. It is possible to obtain values for the depth of the three existing hole trap levels either by optical measurements or by evaluation of glow curves.     

An algorithm for unified analysis on the thermoluminescence glow curve

An algorithm was developed to integrally handle excitation by radiation, relaxation and luminescence by thermal or optical stimulation in thermoluminescence (TL) and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) processes. This algorithm reflects the mutual interaction between traps through a conduction band. Electrons and holes are created by radiation in the beginning, and these electrons move to the trap through the conduction band. These holes move to the recombination center through a valence band. The ratio of the electrons allocated to each trap differs with the recombination probability and these values also relevant to the process of luminescence. Accordingly, the glow curve can be interpreted by taking the rate of electron–hole pairs created by ionizing radiation as a unique initial condition. This method differs from the conventional method of interpreting the measured glow curve with the initial electron concentration allocated to each trap at the end of irradiation. A program using the Visual Studio's C# subsystem was made to realize such a developed algorithm. To verify this algorithm it was applied to LiF:Mg,Cu,Si. The TL glow curve was deconvoluted with a model of five traps, one deep trap and one recombination center (RC).     

Untersuchungen zur elektronenangeregten Exoelektronenemission an Metallen

The exoelectron-emission from electron irradiated metal specimens was measured in a heatable Geiger-Müller-counter. For a silver specimen the term data (activation energy, frequency factor) of the traps were determined from the shape of the glow curve, using the methods applied on thermoluminescence glow curves. The comparison of the glow curve with theoretical emission curves of monoenergetic traps showed that the glow curve consisted of several emission curves, which had not been resolved in the measurement. For the activation energies of the traps responsible for the emission in the temperature range from 20 to 180 °C we got values of about 1 eV. The computed frequency factors are rather uncertain; they cover the range between 10⁹ and 10¹⁴ sec^?1.     

A computer program for the deconvolution of the thermoluminescence glow curves by employing the interactive trap model

An efficient computer program has been developed to deconvolute thermoluminescence (TL) glow peaks and optically stimulated (OSL) curves by employing a method of the interactive trap model (ITM). The program is designed to be used easily on the MS Windows-based computer with a graphical user interface. This program could be used to analyze the TL glow curves by using the traditional first-order kinetics (1OK), second-order kinetics (2OK), general order kinetics (GOK), mixed order kinetics (MOK) and the general approximation (GA) method as well as ITM. The program was tested with the generated data and the experimental results of deconvoluted TL glow curves of LiF TLD-100 by assigning five interacting traps and one recombination center. A complete version with full functionalities of this program can be downloaded from the web site http://physica.gnu.ac.kr/TLanal.     

Development of a new curve deconvolution algorithm for optically stimulated luminescence

A new computerized glow curve deconvolution (CGCD) algorithm for thermoluminescence(TL) and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) is presented. The proposed approach can be adopted in a numerical curve fitting for obtaining the relevant trapping parameters of a set of glow data taken with both thermal and optical stimulation. This method is based on the one trap one recombination center (OTOR) model with minimal simplifying assumptions. To demonstrate the ability of the method, a new computer program has been developed and tested with some synthetic OSL data.     

Computerized glow curve deconvolution of thermoluminescent emission from polyminerals of Jamaica Mexican flower

The aim of this work is to study the main thermoluminescence (TL) characteristics of the inorganic polyminerals extracted from dehydrated Jamaica flower or roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) belonging to Malvaceae family of Mexican origin. TL emission properties of the polymineral fraction in powder were studied using the initial rise (IR) method. The complex structure and kinetic parameters of the glow curves have been analysed accurately using the computerized glow curve deconvolution (CGCD) assuming an exponential distribution of trapping levels. The extension of the IR method to the case of a continuous and exponential distribution of traps is reported, such as the derivation of the TL glow curve deconvolution functions for continuous trap distribution. CGCD is performed both in the case of frequency factor, s, temperature independent, and in the case with the s function of temperature.     

Studies on shallow traps in Li2B4O7:Eu,Mn

Li₂B₄O₇ (LTB) single crystals doped with 0.5 mol% Mn and 0.005 mol% Eu have been grown by the Czochralski method. The presence of Eu³⁺ has been confirmed by photoluminescence spectra of non-irradiated crystals, whereas the presence of Mn²⁺ by absorption spectra of gamma-irradiated ones, as well as by EPR measurements. Unlike in most thermoluminescence studies on pure and doped LTB, performed usually above 300 K, glow curves have been recorded between 10 and 300 K in order to focus the attention on shallow traps. A broad, intense glow peak is observed around 80 K, with three weaker peaks at 205, 255, and 280 K. Based on supplementary T_max − T_stop experiments, the trap parameters have been derived assuming that the glow curve is in fact formed by a superposition of a double Gaussian band related to a quasi-continuous distribution of trapping levels, and several glow peaks produced by discrete traps. The nature of the traps is also discussed.     

热释光谱研究长余辉发光材料的陷阱能级

介绍了热释光剂量计和热释光的基本原理。通过测量长余辉发光材料的热释光谱,并采用一阶动力学近似,可以量化分析长余辉发光材料中的陷阱能级的深度、电荷密度等参数,并可以讨论陷阱能级与长余辉性能的关系,深入理解长余辉过程。     

Recombination centres and traps in ZnIn2S4

Luminescence intensity, phosphorescence decay and thermoluminescence glow have been measured for ZnIn₂S₄ and the results have been compared with previous data on the same material. Superlinear luminescence is found and it is interpreted in terms of the presence of several recombination centres in this crystal. From the analysis of the phosphorescence decay and thermoluminescence glow an exponential trap distribution is deduced with a slope of 70 meV/decade.     

Effect of annealing temperature on determining trap depths of quartz by various heating rates method

The aim of this study is to determine the trap parameters (trap depth E, frequency factor s) of quartz using various heating rates method and also to investigate the effect of annealing temperature on determining trap depths. The method is based on the positions of the thermoluminescence peaks, obtained from the change in temperature of the peak at maximum caused by changing the heating rate at which the sample is measured. In the present work, powder quartz samples were annealed first at different temperatures before irradiation. Then samples irradiated to different doses were measured with a TL reader at different heating rates and the glow curves were recorded. In order to calculate the trap depth E and the frequency factor s, the glow parameter T_m was determined experimentally from the glow curve by measuring the shift of the maximum peak temperature depending on heating rate β. The calculation of trap parameters was repeated for each annealing temperature. Then the effect of annealing temperature on trap depths calculated by the various heating rates method was evaluated.     

Restored thermoluminescence in oxide crystals

In this paper, we present the results of a thermoluminescence study on several oxide crystals, including Y₃Al₅O₁₂ (YAG), Y₃Al₅O₁₂:Nd (YAG:Nd), Lu₂SiO₅:Ce (LSO:Ce), Y₂SiO₅:Ce (YSO:Ce), Gd₂SiO₅:Ce (GSO:Ce), PbWO (PWO), and PbWO:La (PWO:La). A phenomenon involving restoration of thermoluminescence (TL) glow peaks is found to occur in some of the crystals investigated; crystals γ-irradiated at room temperature and subsequently stored for some time in the dark at 77 K exhibit TL glow peaks in the range below room temperature. This phenomenon is caused not by a thermally or optically stimulated process, but rather as a by-product of a tunneling process. The intensity of the restored TL glow peaks measured in LSO:Ce crystals is found to be proportional both to the radiation dose and to the storage-time at low temperature. A phenomenological theoretical model is proposed, in which tunneling recombination occurs between deep electron and hole traps accompanied by the simultaneous ejection of an electron to the conduction band; some of these conduction electrons then repopulate shallow traps. An oxygen vacancy with two trapped electrons is assumed to be the deep electron trap in this model. The role of oxygen vacancies is confirmed by heating in air at 1000 °C. This model is applied specifically to LSO:Ce, and several possible candidates are suggested for shallow traps in that material.     

Thermoluminescence and isothermal decay of luminescence in x-irradiated urea and thiourea

Experiments have been performed on the thermoluminescence and the isothermal decay of luminescence of both urea and thiourea crystals excited by X-rays at low temperature. The analysis of the isothermal decay curves has been performed assuming that the light emission consists of a sum of exponential decays with different time constants τ_i. Taking into account the dependence of τ_i from temperature, the values of thermal activation energies of the trapping centres involved in the luminescence process are obtained. In addition, the analysis of the glow curve, that has been performed through three different methods, allowed to obtain the values of some parameters related to the thermoluminescence process, such as the thermal activation energy E, the frequency factor s and the ration A/B between the retrapping and recombination probabilities. These results agree well enough with those from the isothermal decay analysis. A comparison has been made between the results for urea and for thiorea. Some topics concerned with the nature of the defects responsible for the luminescence process in these substances are also investigated.     

Recombination luminescences resulting from the photoionization of N,N, N′, N′-tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine in the low temperature matrices. II

The delayed luminescences and thermal glow curves from ultraviolet-irradiated rigid solutions of N, N, N′, N′-tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine (TMPD) were investigated. The luminescence which comprises the flourescence and phosphorescence of TMPD was affected by the composition of the matrix and an added electron trap, that is, benzene, diphenyl, carbon dioxide, oxygen, etc. It was found that the glow curves for systems containing these electron-trapping reagents show two components, which are concluded to be due, respectively, to electrons trapped by the solvent and these reagents. The electrons trapped by the solvent are released at the lower temperature. These results are indicative of the capabilities of these added molecules to capture electrons in the rigid organic matrices. It has also been found that the glow curve for a concentrated solution of TMPD shows two maxima, suggesting that TMPD itself acts as an electron trap. Oxygen quenches the delayed luminescence and thermoluminescence strongly. The intensity ratios between fluorescence and phosphorescence were measured and correlated with the glow curves.