A New Elaboration Route by Sol-Gel Process for Cerium Doped SrHfO3 Films and Powders

We present for the first time the elaboration via sol gel route of cerium (1 mol%) doped SrHfO₃ powders and films. The sol is elaborated using hafnium and strontium ethoxides as precursors and cerium nitrate as dopant. The structure of powders and films are characterized by convergent methods: Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, Raman spectroscopy and optical measurements conducted by the prism coupling method. The powder crystallises from amorphous to pure SrHfO₃ orthorhombic perovskite phase after a 800°C heat treatment. Nevertheless HfO₂ monoclinic phase coexists with orthorhombic perovskite phase after a 1000°C heat treatment. The film is amorphous for annealing temperatures lower than 700°C and presents good waveguiding performances. The film heat-treated at 700°C exhibits a refractive index of 1.810 ± 0.001 (λ = 543.5 nm) for a thickness around 375 nm. The attenuation coefficient obtained on the 400°C heat-treated film is α = 4.0 ± 0.5 dB/cm (λ = 632.8 nm). The film starts to crystallize at 750°C into the SrHfO₃ orthorhombic phase but HfO₂ monoclinic phase is also detected after a heat treatment at 1000°C. The potentiality of sol gel Ce³⁺:SrHfO₃ powders and films for scintillation applications are investigated.     

UV absorption spectrum of CF3CFClO2 and kinetics of the self reaction of CF3CFCl and CF3CFClO2 and the reactions of CF3CFClO2 with NO and NO2

The ultraviolet absorption spectrum of CF₃CFClO₂ and the kinetics of the self reactions of CF₃CFCl and CF₃CFClO₂ radicals and the reactions of CF₃CFClO₂ with NO and NO₂ have been studied in the gas phase at 295 K by pulse radiolysis/transient UV absorption spectroscopy. The UV absorption cross section of CF₃CFCl radicals was measured to be (1.78 ± 0.22) × 10^?18 cm² molecule^?1 at 220 nm. The UV spectrum of CF₃CFClO₂ radicals was quantified from 220 nm to 290 nm. The absorption cross section at 250 nm was determined to be (1.67 ± 0.21) × 10^?18 cm² molecule^?1. The rate constants for the self reactions of CF₃CFCl and CF₃CFClO₂ radicals were (2.6 ± 0.4) × 10^?12 cm³ molecule^?1 s^?1 and (2.6 ± 0.5) × 10^?12 cm³ molecule^?1 s^?1, respectively. The reactivity of CF₃CFClO₂ radicals towards NO and NO₂ was determined to (1.5 ± 0.6) × 10^?11 cm³ molecule^?1 s^?1 and (5.9 ± 0.5) × 10^?12 cm³ molecule^?1 s^?1, respectively. Finally, the rate constant for the reaction of F atoms with CF₃CFClH was determined to (8 ± 2) × 10^?13 cm³ molecule^?1 s^?1. Results are discussed in the context of the atmospheric chemistry of HCFC-124, CF₃CFClH. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Photostimulated changes in WO3 nanosized films

During the irradiation of WO₃ films d = 7–160 nm thick by light at λ = 320 nm (I = (1.5–7) × 10¹⁵ quantum cm⁻² s⁻¹), absorption band at λ = 850 nm appeared along with absorption band edge shift to shorter waves. The subsequent irradiation of samples at λ = 850 nm caused the disappearance of the longwave absorption band. The intrinsic absorption edge of WO₃ films was determined (λ = 320 nm). The degree of transformations of WO₃ films increased under atmospheric conditions as the intensity of incident light and the time of irradiation (1–140 min) grew and as film thickness decreased. A mechanism of photochemical transformations of WO₃ films was suggested. This mechanism included the generation of electron-hole pairs, the recombination of part of nonequilibrium charge carriers, the formation of [eV_a²⁺e] centers, and the isolation of photolysis products.     

Pulse radiolysis study of CF3CCI2 and CF3CCI2O2 radicals in the gas phase at 295K

The ultraviolet absorption spectra and self reaction kinetics of CF₃CCI₂ and CF₃CCI₂O₂ radicals have been studied in the gas phase at 295K. Absorption cross sections were quantified over the wavelength range 220–300 nm. Measured cross sections near the absorption maxima were γ_CF3CCI2(230 nm) = (9.70 ± 1.47) x 10^-18 and γ_CF3CCI2O2(250 nm) = (1.70 ± 0.26) x 10^-18 cm² molecule^-1. Errors are statistical (2γ) together with our estimate of potential systematic errors. Rate constants for the self reaction of CF₃CCI₂ and CF₃CCI₂O₂ radicals were measured to be k₆ = (2.46 ± 0.43) x 10^-12 and k_7obs = (3.33 ± 0.53) x 10^-12 cm³ molecule^-1 s^-1, respectively. Results are discussed with respect to the existing database concerning halogenated peroxy radicals.     

Photostimulated transformations in nanosized MoO3 films

Irradiation of MoO₃ films (with a thickness d = 5–54 nm) with light (λ = 320 nm, I = (1.5–7) × 10¹⁵ quantum cm^?2 s^?1) led to the formation of an absorption band at λ = 870 nm along with the shift of the edge of the absorption band to the short-wave region of the spectrum. Further irradiation of the samples with light at λ = 870 nm caused diffusion of the long-wave absorption band. The conversion of MoO₃ films increased when the incident light intensity and irradiation time increased and the film thickness decreased under the atmospheric conditions. A mechanism of the photochemical transformation of MoO₃ films was suggested. It involves the generation of electron-hole pairs, recombination of some nonequilibrium charge carriers, formation of [(e(V _a )⁺⁺ e] centers, and isolation of photolysis products.     

Photodissociation of protonated β-diketones in the gas phase

The gas phase photodissociation spectra of four protonated β-diketones were obtained and compared with the absorption spectra of the corresponding ions in solution. Protonated 2,4-pentanedione was observed to undergo the photodissociation process [C₅H₉O₂]⁺ +hν → [CH₃CO]⁺ +C₃H₆O with a λmax at 276±10 nm compared with a solution absorption maximum at 286 nm. Protonated 2,4-hexanedione was observed to undergo the photodissociation processes [C₆H₁₁O₂]⁺ +hν → [CH₃CO]⁺ +C₄H₈O and [C₆H₁₁O₂]⁺ +hν → [C₂H₅CO]⁺ +C₃H₆O with a λmax at 279±10 nm compared with a solution absorption maximum at 288 nm. Protonated 3-methyl-2,4-pentanedione was observed to undergo the photodissociation process [C₆H₁₁O₂]⁺ +hν → [CH₃CO]⁺ +C₄H₈O with a λmax at 295±10 nm compared with a solution absorption maximum at 305 nm. Protonated 1,1,1-trifluoro-2,4-pentanedione was observed to undergo the photodissociation process [C₅H₆F₃O₂]⁺ +hν → CF₃H+[C₄H₅O₂]⁺ with a λmax at 273±10 nm compared with a solution absorption maximum at 288 nm. The [CH₃CO]⁺ and [C₂H₅CO]⁺ produced photochemically with the first three ions react to regenerate the protonated β-diketone leading to a photostationary state. Photodissociation of the protonated alkyl β-diketones is believed to occur from the protonated keto form, whereas photodissociation of protonated 1,1,1-trifluoro-2,4-pentanedione is believed to occur from the protonated enol form. Mechanisms for the observed photodissociation processes are proposed and comparisons with results from related techniques are presented.     

A spectrokinetic study of CH2I and CH2IO2 radicals

The UV absorption spectrum and kinetics of CH₂I and CH₂IO₂ radicals have been studied in the gasphase at 295 K using a pulse radiolysis UV absorption spectroscopic technique. UV absorption spectra of CH₂I and CH₂IO₂ radicals were quantified in the range 220–400 nm. The spectrum of CH₂I has absorption maxima at 280 nm and 337.5 nm. The absorption cross-section for the CH₂I radicals at 337.5 nm was (4.1 ± 0.9) × 10^?18 cm² molecule^?1. The UV spectrum of CH₂IO₂ radicals is broad. The absorption cross-section at 370 nm was (2.1 ± 0.5) × 10^?18 cm² molecule^?1. The rate constant for the self reaction of CH₂I radicals, k = 4 × 10^?11 cm³ molecule^?1 s^?1 at 1000 mbar total pressure of SF₆, was derived by kinetic modelling of experimental absorbance transients. The observed self-reaction rate constant for CH₂IO₂ radicals was estimated also by modelling to k = 9 × 10^?11 cm³ molecule^?1 s^?1. As part of this work a rate constant of (2.0 ± 0.3) × 10^?10 cm³ molecule^?1 s^?1 was measured for the reaction of F atoms with CH₃I. The branching ratios of this reaction for abstraction of an I atom and a H atom were determined to (64 ± 6)% and (36 ± 6)%, respectively. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Structure,optical and magnetic properties of LaFeO3 nanoparticles prepared by polymerized complex method

This work reports the study the structure, optical and magnetic properties of LaFeO₃ nanoparticles synthesized by the polymerized complex method. The LaFeO₃ nanoparticles were successfully obtained from calcination of the precursor at different temperatures from 750 to 1,050 °C in air for 2 h. The calcined LaFeO₃ nanoparticles were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), UV–Visible spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy (XANES) and vibrating sample magnetometry. The XRD and TEM results showed that all LaFeO₃ samples had a single phase nature with the orthorhombic structure. The estimated crystallite sizes were in the range of 44.5 ± 2.4–74.1 ± 4.9 nm. UV–Vis spectra showed strong UV and Vis absorption with small band gap energy. The valence states of Fe ions were in the Fe³⁺ and Fe⁴⁺ state, as confirmed by XPS and XANES results. The weak ferromagnetic behavior with specific saturation magnetization of 0.1 emu/g at 10 kOe was obtained for the small particle of 44.5 ± 2.4 nm. The uncompensated spins at the surface was proposed as playing a part in the magnetic properties of small sized LaFeO₃.     

Branching ratios for BrO production from reactions of O(1D) with HBr,CF3Br,CH3Br,CF2ClBr,and CF2HBr

Laser-flash photolysis of RBr/O₃/SF₆/He mixtures at 248 nm has been coupled with BrO detection by time-resolved UV absorption spectroscopy to measure BrO product yields from O(¹D) reactions with HBr, CF₃Br, CH₃Br, CF₂ClBr, and CF₂HBr at 298±3 K. The measured yields are: HBr, 0.20±0.04; CF₃Br, 0.49±0.07; CH₃Br, 0.44±0.05; CF₂ClBr, 0.31±0.06; and CF₂HBr, 0.39±0.07 (uncertainties are 2σ and include estimates of both random and systematic errors). The results are discussed in light of other available information or O(¹D)+RBr reactions. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Int J Chem Kinet 30: 555–563, 1998     

Effect of sol-gel preparation method on particle morphology in pure and nanocomposite PZT thin films

Double-scale composite lead zirconate titanate Pb(Zr_0.52Ti_0.48)O₃ (PZT) thin films of 360 nm thickness were prepared by a modified composite sol-gel method. PZT films were deposited from both the pure sol and the composite suspension on Pt/Al₂O₃ substrates by the spin-coating method and were sintered at 650°C. The composite suspension formed after ultrasonic mixing of the PZT nanopowder and PZT sol at the powder/sol mass concentration 0.5 g mL⁻¹. PZT nanopowder (≈ 40–70 nm) was prepared using the conventional sol-gel method and calcination at 500°C. Pure PZT sol was prepared by a modified sol-gel method using a propan-1-ol/propane-1,2-diol mixture as a stabilizing solution. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis indicated that the thin films possess a single perovskite phase after their sintering at 650°C. The results of scanning electron microscope (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analyses confirmed that the roughness of double-scale composite PZT films (≈ 17 nm) was significantly lower than that of PZT films prepared from pure sol (≈ 40 nm). The composite film consisted of nanosized PZT powder uniformly dispersed in the PZT matrix. In the surface micrograph of the film derived from sol, large round perovskite particles (≈ 100 nm) composed of small spherical individual nanoparticles (≈ 60 nm) were observed. The composite PZT film had a higher crystallinity degree and smoother surface morphology with necklace clusters of nanopowder particles in the sol-gel matrix compared to the pure PZT film. Microstructure of the composite PZT film can be characterized by a bimodal particle size distribution containing spherical perovskite particles from added PZT nanopowder and round perovskite particles from the sol-matrix, (≈ 30–50 nm and ≈ 100–120 nm), respectively. Effect of the PZT film preparation method on the morphology of pure and composite PZT thin films deposited on Pt/Al₂O₃ substrates was evaluated.     

Photoacoustic spectroscopic studies of Ho3+, Er3+, and Sm3+ doped polyvinyl alcohol films

Photoacoustic (PA) spectra of Ho³⁺, Er³⁺, and Sm³⁺ doped PVA films were obtained in 350–800 nm range. PA spectra were also obtained for the respective dopant oxides: Ho₂O₃, Er₂O₃, and Sm₂O₃ for comparison. It was found that in PVA the PA sensitivity has increased considerably compared to pure rare earth oxides. The relative intensities of absorption bands at 540 and 637 nm of Ho₃₊: PVA have shown distinct enhancement, indicating the increase in nonradiative relaxation at these excitations. Furthermore, the PA signals at wavelengths for different PA absorption bands were monitored as a function of chopping frequency. These experiments have shown that PA signal varies w⁻¹ both for oxides and PVA samples, suggesting that they behave as thermally thin samples. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Absolute rate constants for F + CH3CHO and CH3CO + O2, relative rate study of CH3CO + NO,and the product distribution of the F + CH3CHO reaction

Using a pulse-radiolysis transient UV–VIS absorption system, rate constants for the reactions of F atoms with CH₃CHO (1) and CH₃CO radicals with O₂ (2) and NO (3) at 295 K and 1000 mbar total pressure of SF₆ was determined to be k₁=(1.4±0.2)×10⁻¹⁰, k₂=(4.4±0.7)×10⁻¹², and k₃=(2.4±0.7)×10⁻¹¹ cm³ molecule⁻¹ s⁻¹. By monitoring the formation of CH₃C(O)O₂ radicals (λ>250nm) and NO₂ (λ=400.5nm) following radiolysis of SF₆/CH₃CHO/O₂ and SF₆/CH₃CHO/O₂/NO mixtures, respectively, it was deduced that reaction of F atoms with CH₃CHO gives (65±9)% CH₃CO and (35±9)% HC(O)CH₂ radicals. Finally, the data obtained here suggest that decomposition of HC(O)CH₂O radicals via C C bond scission occurs at a rate of <4.7×10⁵ s⁻¹. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Int J Chem Kinet 30: 913–921, 1998     

Spectrokinetic study of SF5 and SF5O2 radicals and the reaction of SF5O2 with NO

UV spectra of SF₅ and SF₅O₂ radicals in the gas phase at 295 K have been quantified using a pulse radiolysis UV absorption technique. The absorption spectrum of SF₅ was quantified from 220 to 240 nm. The absorption cross section at 220 nm was (5.5 ± 1.7) × 10⁻¹⁹ cm². When SF₅ was produced in the presence of O₂ an equilibrium between SF₅, O₂, and SF₅O₂ was established. The rate constant for the reaction of SF₅ radicals with O₂ was (8 ± 2) × 10⁻¹³ cm³ molecule⁻¹ s⁻¹. The decomposition rate constant for SF₅O₂ was (1.0 ± 0.5) × 10⁵ s⁻¹, giving an equilibrium constant of K_eq = [SF₅O₂]/[SF₅][O₂] = (8.0 ± 4.5) × 10⁻¹⁸ cm³ molecule⁻¹. The SF₅ O₂ bond strength is (13.7 ± 2.0) kcal mol⁻¹. The SF₅O₂ spectrum was broad with no fine structure and similar to the UV spectra of alkyl peroxy radicals. The absorption cross section at 230 nm was found to (3.7 ± 0.9) × 10⁻¹⁸ cm². The rate constant of the reaction of SF₅O₂ with NO was measured to (1.1 ± 0.3) × 10⁻¹¹ cm³ molecule⁻¹ s⁻¹ by monitoring the kinetics of NO₂ formation at 400 nm. The rate constant for the reaction of F atoms with SF₄ was measured by two relative methods to be (1.3 ± 0.3) × 10⁻¹¹ cm³ molecule⁻¹ s⁻¹. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Bi3+-Er3+ and Bi3+-Yb3+ Codoped Cs2AgInCl6 Double Perovskite Near-Infrared Emitters

Bi³⁺ and lanthanide ions have been codoped in metal oxides as optical sensitizers and emitters. But such codoping is not known in typical semiconductors such as Si, GaAs, and CdSe. Metal halide perovskite with coordination number 6 provides an opportunity to codope Bi³⁺ and lanthanide ions. Codoping of Bi³⁺ and Ln³⁺ (Ln=Er and Yb) in Cs₂AgInCl₆ double perovskite is presented. Bi³⁺-Er³⁺ codoped Cs₂AgInCl₆ shows Er³⁺ f-electron emission at 1540 nm (suitable for low-loss optical communication). Bi³⁺ codoping decreases the excitation (absorption) energy, such that the samples can be excited with ca. 370 nm light. At that excitation, Bi³⁺-Er³⁺ codoped Cs₂AgInCl₆ shows ca. 45 times higher emission intensity compared to the Er³⁺ doped Cs₂AgInCl₆. Similar results are also observed in Bi³⁺-Yb³⁺ codoped sample emitting at 994 nm. A combination of temperature-dependent (5.7 K to 423 K) photoluminescence and calculations is used to understand the optical sensitization and emission processes.     

Redox chemistry of o- and m -hydroxycinnamic acids: A pulse radiolysis study

Radiation chemical reactions of^•OH, O^•−, N₃ ^•and e _aq ^t- witho- and m-hydroxycinnamic acids were studied. The second-orderrateconstantsforthereaction of^•OH with ortho and meta isomers in buffer solution at pH7 are 3.9±0.2 × 10⁹ and 4.4 ± 0.3 × 10⁹ dm³ mol^-1 s^-1 respectively. At pH 3 the rate with the ortho isomer was halved (1.6 ± 0.4 × 10⁹ dm³ mol^-1 s^-1) but it was unaffected in the case of meta isomer (k = 4.2±0.6 × 10⁹dm³mol^-1 s^-1). The rate constant in the reaction of N₃ ^• with the ortho isomer is lower by an order of magnitude (k = 4.9 ± 0.4 × 10⁸ dm³ mol^-1s^-1). The rates of the reaction of e _aq ^t- with ortho and meta isomers were found to be diffusion controlled. The transient absorption spectrum measured in the^•OH witho-hydroxycinnamic acid exhibited an absorption maximum at 360 nm and in meta isomer the spectrum was blue-shifted (330 nm) with a shoulder at 390 nm. A peak at 420 nm was observed in the reaction of O^bb−with theo-isomer whereas the meta isomer has a maximum at 390 and a broad shoulder at 450 nm. In the reaction of the absorption peaks were centred at 370–380 nm in both the isomers. The underlying reaction mechanism is discussed.     

A study of the mechanism and kinetics of the reaction of O(3P) atoms with propane

The mechanism and kinetics of the reaction of O(³P) atoms with propane were investigated using molecular modulation spectroscopy, with the O(³P) atoms being generated by the Hg photosensitized decomposition of N₂O. The absorption spectrum of the X²II_3/2 state of OH was observed in the ultraviolet between 307 and 309 nm, and it was confirmed that OH was the product of the O(³P) reaction with propane. The rate constants for the reactions of O(³P) and OH with propane were determined to be 3.9±0.7±10¹⁰ and 1.19±0.05±10¹² cm³/mole·sec, respectively, at T=56±5°C.     

Photofragmentation of CH3Br in the A band

CH₃Br is photodissociated in the first continuum. Dissociation takes place into ground state CH₃ and Br [ = Br(²P_{$\text{3}\text{2}$}] or Br* [ = Br(*P_{$\text{1}\text{2}$})]. Time of flight and angular distributions of the CH₃ fragments are measured. The Br*/Br ratios upon excitation at 222 and 193 nm are found to be 1.00 and 0.20 respectively. The anisotropy parameters at these wavelengths are β = 0.28±0.04 and β = ?0.23±0.02, respectively. The total absorption cross section is decomposed into partial absorption cross sections of the ¹Q, ³Q₀ and ³Q₁ states. It appears that excitation at 222 nm takes place to the ³Q₀ and ³Q ₁ states whereas at 193 nm the ¹Q and ³Q₀ states are excited. Contrary to CH₃I, the adiabatic curve crossing between the ³Q₀ and the ¹Q states in Ch₃Br is not important. The dissociation energy of the CBr bond is determined to be D₀(CH₃Br) = 2.87±0.02 eV.     

Absolute rate constants for the self reactions of HO2, CF3CFHO2, and CF3O2 radicals and the cross reactions of HO2 with FO2, HO2 with CF3CFHO2, and HO2 with CF3O2 at 295 K

The kinetics of the self-reactions of HO₂, CF₃CFHO₂, and CF₃O₂ radicals and the cross reactions of HO₂ with FO₂, HO₂ with CF₃CFHO₂, and HO₂ with CF₃O₂ radicals, were studied by pulse radiolysis combined with time resolved UV absorption spectroscopy at 295 K. The rate constants for these reactions were obtained by computer simulation of absorption transients monitored at 220, 230, and 240 nm. The following rate constants were obtained at 295 K and 1000 mbar total pressure of SF₆ (unit: 10⁻¹² cm³ molecule⁻¹ s⁻¹): k(HO₂+HO₂)=3.5±1.0, k(CF₃CFHO₂+CF₃CFHO₂)=3.5±0.8, k(CF₃O₂+CF₃O₂)=2.25±0.30, k(HO₂+FO₂)=9±4, k(CF₃CFHO₂+HO₂)=5.0±1.5, and k(CF₃O₂+HO₂)=4.0±2.0. In addition, the decomposition rate of CF₃CFHO radicals was estimated to be (0.2–2)×10³ s⁻¹ in 1000 mbar of SF₆. Results are discussed in the context of the atmospheric chemistry of hydrofluorocarbons. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Optical reflectivity and absorption measurements of sodium C222 sodide

The reflectivity at normal incidence of single crystals of Na⁺C222 · Na⁻ was measured from 350 to 2500 nm in a microreflectivity apparatus. The reflectivity spectrum shows a single peak at 630 ± 10 nm (1.97 eV) with a peak reflectivity of up to 60%. No rise in the reflectivity was found toward longer wavelengths. This absence of a plasma edge confirms that the concentration of conduction electrons is smaller than 1.8 × 10²⁰/cm³ as expected from the low electrical conductivity of this sodide. The absorption spectrum of thin solid films of Na⁺C222 · Na⁻, formed by vapor deposition, was measuredin situ in a vacuum evaporator. The absorption peak was at 650 ± 10 nm (1.91 eV), with a full-width at half-maximum of 0.37 eV. The reflectivity and absorption data were used together to estimate the indices of refraction and absorption and the components of the complex dielectric constant as a function of wavelength.     

The UV absorption spectrum of the CCl3 radical and the kinetics of its mutual combination reaction from 253 to 623 K

The UV absorption spectrum and the kinetics of the self combination reaction of the CCl₃ radical were studied by flash photolysis in the temperature range 253–623 K. Experiments were performed at the atmospheric pressure, except for a few runs at the highest temperatures, which were performed between 30 and 760 torr. CCl₃ radicals were generated by flash photolysis of molecular chlorine in the presence of chloroform. The UV spectrum exhibits a strong unstructured band between 195 and 260 nm with a maximum at 211 ± 2 nm. The absorption cross section, measured relative to σ(HO₂), is σ(CCl₃) = (1.45 ± 0.35) × 10^?17 cm² molecule^?1 at the maximum. This value takes into account the uncertainty in σ(HO₂) which was taken equal to (4.9 ± 0.7) × 10^?18 cm² molecule^?1. The absolute rate constant for the CCl₃ mutual combination was determined by computer simulation of the transient decays. The rate constant, which exhibits a slight negative temperature coefficient, can be expressed as: The study of the pressure dependence showed that only a slight fall-off behavior could be observed at the highest temperature (623 K). This result was corroborated by RRKM calculations which showed that the rate constant is at the high pressure limit under most experimental conditions below 600 K.