Noncontact thermal pyrometry for condensed materials

Pyrometry technique is suggested aimed at minimizing the measurement error and increasing the accuracy of contactless temperature measurements. Significantly, the suggested method of pyrometer calibration allows using a two-tiered approach with preliminary or additional recording of the system’s state and thermal radiation to refine temperature measurements. To improve the reliability of results and extend the application range of thermal pyrometry, it is necessary to decrease the influence of the relative error of the spectral ratio on measuring data.     

Temperature measurements of high-temperature semi-transparent infrared material using multi-wavelength pyrometry

Temperature measurements inside semi-transparent materials are important in many fields. This study investigates the measurements of interior temperature distributions in a one-dimensional semi-transparent material using multi-wavelength pyrometry based on the Levenberg–Marquardt method (LMM). The investigated material is semi-transparent Zinc Sulfide (ZnS), an infrared-transmitting optical material operating at long wavelengths. The radiation properties of the one-dimensional semi-transparent ZnS plate, including the effective spectral–directional radiation intensity and the proportion of emitted radiation, are numerically discussed at different wavelengths (8.0–14.0 μm) and temperature distributions (400–800 K) to provide the basic data for the temperature inversion problem. Multi-wavelength pyrometry was combined with the Levenberg–Marquardt method to resolve the temperature distribution along the radiative transfer direction based on the line-of-sight spectral radiation intensities at multiple wavelengths in the optimized spectral range of (11.0–14.0 μm) for the semi-transparent ZnS plate. The analyses of the non-linear inverse problem show that with less than 5.0% noise, the inversion temperature results using the Levenberg–Marquardt method are satisfactory for linear or Gaussian temperature distributions in actual applications. The analysis provides valuable guidelines for applications using multi-wavelength pyrometry for temperature measurements of semi-transparent materials.     

微波电真空器件用热阴极的温度测量

利用红外测温仪、光学测温仪、热电偶测温仪(铂铑-铂)对微波电真空器件用浸渍阴极表面、覆膜阴极表面、阴极侧面（钼筒）进行了温度对比测试研究。结果表明:采用红外测温仪和光学测温仪测试浸渍阴极表面的温度与采用热电偶测温仪测试的温度相差不大,而覆膜阴极却相差约50 ℃;采用红外测温仪和光学测温仪测试阴极侧面（钼筒）的温度相差不大,都低于热电偶测温仪测试的温度约60 ℃,这说明红外和光学测试温度值低于阴极的实际温度（热电偶测量值）。由于在阴极表面出现了物理、化学变化,红外测温仪和光学测温仪测试的阴极表面温度值在1150 ℃左右加热100 min内增加约30 ℃。分析认为这些差异主要是因为覆膜阴极的表面与浸渍阴极的表面及阴极侧面（钼筒）的发射系数不同造成的,当然测试结果也会随着这些因素的变化而有一定的变化。     

Error scrutiny of measuring coefficients of refractive indices and Soret coefficients using Mach–Zehnder interferometer

No matter how vigilantly an experiment is performed, errors always there inside the experimental results. Since the results of laser based optical experiments are somewhat loftier in precision, commonly, sources of errors are mistreated. However, ample error scrutiny is vital in quantifying of physical parameters of liquids such as Soret and diffusion coefficients. There are two types of experimental errors, explicitly, systematic error and random error. Systematic error is associated to the apparatus and cannot be enhanced by recurrent experiments. Frequent systematic errors in Mach–Zehnder Interferometer (MZI) techniques originate from stability of laser wavelength, resolution of the electronics component etcetera. Random error is interrelated to the variation in the equivalent measurements of repeating experiment. Resolution of electronic components likewise constructs random errors by providing diverse values in the recurring experiment. Foremost, random error of MZI is caused by the environmental circumstances such as nonconformity of background light, air temperature, and air humidity. In this current amendment, a meticulous error analysis has been accomplished for evaluating thermodiffusion or Soret coefficients of hydrocarbon binary mixtures. Based on our knowledge, such a completed error scrutiny for measuring Soret coefficients using MZI does not yet exist in the literature. Study reveals that the utmost error of measuring Soret coefficient using MZI is less than 0.22%.     

Use of rigid-body motion for the investigation and estimation of the measurement errors related to digital image correlation technique

The aim of this work is to investigate the sources of errors related to digital image correlation (DIC) technique applied to strain measurements. The knowledge of such information is important before the measured kinematic fields can be exploited. After recalling the principle of DIC, some sources of errors related to this technique are listed. Both numerical and experimental tests, based on rigid-body motion, are proposed. These tests are simple and easy-to-implement. They permit to quickly assess the errors related to lighting, the optical lens (distortion), the CCD sensor, the out-of-plane displacement, the speckle pattern, the grid pitch, the size of the subset and the correlation algorithm. The errors sources that cannot be uncoupled were estimated by amplifying their contribution to the global error. The obtained results permit to address a classification of the error related to the used equipment. The paper ends by some suggestions proposed in order to minimize the errors.     

Inverse analysis of non-uniform temperature distributions using multispectral pyrometry

Optical diagnostics can be used to obtain sub-pixel temperature information in remote sensing. A multispectral pyrometry method was developed using multiple spectral radiation intensities to deduce the temperature area distribution in the measurement region. The method transforms a spot multispectral pyrometer with a fixed field of view into a pyrometer with enhanced spatial resolution that can give sub-pixel temperature information from a “one pixel” measurement region. A temperature area fraction function was defined to represent the spatial temperature distribution in the measurement region. The method is illustrated by simulations of a multispectral pyrometer with a spectral range of 8.0–13.0 μm measuring a non-isothermal region with a temperature range of 500–800 K in the spot pyrometer field of view. The inverse algorithm for the sub-pixel temperature distribution (temperature area fractions) in the “one pixel” verifies this multispectral pyrometry method. The results show that an improved Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm is effective for this ill-posed inverse problem with relative errors in the temperature area fractions of (–3%, 3%) for most of the temperatures. The analysis provides a valuable reference for the use of spot multispectral pyrometers for sub-pixel temperature distributions in remote sensing measurements.     

Thermionic Cathode Electron Gun for High Current Densities

An electron gun using lanthanum hexaboride (LaB6) as a cathode material is being studied for use as a robust thermionic emitter at high cathode current densities. It has a standard planar cathode, Pierce-type electron gun design with a space-charge-limited perveance of 3.2 × 10-6 A/V3/2. Thus far it has been operated up to 36 kV in the space-charge-limited regime. The cathode is heated by electron bombardment and radiation from an auxiliary tungsten filament. The total heating requirement is found to be 202 W/cm2 of cathode area at a cathode temperature of 1626°C. These observations are found to be in reasonable agreement with a thermal steady-state power balance model. Beam current distribution measurements are made with a movable collector and Faraday cup, and are found to be in agreement with an electron-gun computer code. The cathode temperature distribution is also measured.     

About intrinsic errors of optical planarity measurements

We analyze the errors of optical 3D area sensors in measuring geometric parameters, taking planarity as our example. If the planarity of the surface is comparable to the repeat accuracy, the measured planarity is in general unduly poor and the object appears less planar. This error manifests itself to the observer as an apparently systematic offset. This error arises from the interplay of typical properties of optical sensors with standardized methods of interpretation. The standardized interpretation methods for planarity require the use of the maximum departures of the measured heights from the fitted (reference) plane. Optical area sensors can yield very large values for this maximum deviation, even when the standard deviation is small, because these sensors measure up to a million points at a time. The probability of a large maximum error is much lower when the measurement is done on a few points, as it usually is with mechanical sensors. As a consequence, the qualification of optical 3D area sensors calls for a correction with respect to mechanical sensors. In this article, we use methods of extreme-value statistics to determine the errors that occur. Once the error is known, the measured results can be corrected and incorporated into known and standardized methods of interpretation.     

高精度角度加工技术研究

激光陀螺不仅对合光棱镜角度精度有极高的要求,而且对角度和尺寸的一致性有严格的限制。为了加工这种高精度角度光学元件,提出通过手修工装母体复制出成盘加工工装,再复制出光学零件的加工方法,并分析了测角仪的测量精度、面形之间的匹配误差和平行的测量误差所引入的角度加工误差情况,提高了面形加工的平面度,避免了局部不规则现象,控制了温差对面形变化的影响。另外通过降低平行测量的误差以及减小闭合角度之间的叠加误差等具体措施也可以提高光学元件加工效率和角度加工精度。     

近红外通道辐射测量误差对水体大气校正的影响

一类水体的标准大气校正算法利用两个近红外通道(748和869 nm)的辐射比值选择气溶胶模型,然后外推估算各波长的气溶胶贡献,实现离水反射率的反演。两个近红外通道的辐射探测值的不确定性会直接影响反演精度。从数学形式上研究近红外通道测量误差在大气校正中的传递机制,通过敏感性试验分析不同光学厚度和气溶胶模型条件下离水反射率的反演误差分布。结果表明,两个近红外通道的测量误差组合情况对反演结果精度影响程度不同,同号时误差较小,异号时误差较大;气溶胶模型中的细粒子组分越多,反演的误差越大;光学厚度越大,反演误差也越大。     

光学三维扫描仪光强传递函数的测量和校正

由于数字光栅投影仪的光强传递函数对于正弦投影条纹的质量以及相位测量精度起着至关重要的作用,本文提出了一种校正光学三维扫描仪光强传递函数的新方法。首先,分析了由于投影仪非线性响应引起的光栅谐波的相位测量误差;然后,通过投影一组不同灰度级的图像,并利用光功率计测出数字投影仪投出图像的亮度。接着,通过分析得到数字投影仪的非线性响应特性曲线,再经过数据处理,即可获得投影仪的光强传递函数;最后,对光强传递函数进行反函数逆变换,得到一个校正后的非正弦光栅,利用投影仪对该光栅的投影即可在被测物体表面上获得一个正弦光栅。数字投影仪对标准平板的测量结果表明,校正前平均误差为0.71 mm,校正后为0.55 mm;对于标准量块的测量,校正前的平均误差为0.62 mm,校正后为0.15 mm。上述结果表明,本文提出的方法可以减小由于系统非线性响应引起的测量误差并提高测量精度。     

Variational data-analysis method for combining laboratory-measured light-scattering phase functions and forward-scattering computations

A method is developed based on the variational data-analysis formalism to combine laboratory-measured scattering phase functions with forward-scattering phase function computations based on independent size distribution (SD) measurements. The algorithm yields an optimal estimate of the true phase function of the system that is not only based on the measurements and the computational results but also on all available information of the error variances and, if applicable, error covariances of the measured and computed phase functions. The high flexibility of the method is demonstrated by applying it to phase functions of feldspar and fly ash aerosols. Further, the algorithm is employed to determine the asymmetry parameter g of nine different mineral aerosol samples at two different optical wavelengths, and to assess the relative importance of different error sources in the determination of g. It is found that the use of spherical model particles in simulations of g can result in errors on the same order of magnitude as the uncertainty of the refractive index. The use of spherical model particles in computations of forward scattering, however, is found to be only a minor error source.     

大口径光学非球面元件拼接优化及精度验证

针对磨削阶段大口径光学非球面元件拼接测量精度不高的问题,提出一种基于两段拼接的优化算法。首先根据多体系统运动学理论、斜率差值及逆推法建立两段面形轮廓的拼接数学模型;其次针对拼接算法中工件运动量和运动误差对拼接精度的影响,仿真分析了350mm非球面工件的两段拼接。仿真结果表明,随着平移误差增大,拼接误差明显增大,而当控制旋转角度在8°以内、平移量在10mm以内、旋转误差在60′以下及平移误差在3μm以下时,拼接误差的标准偏差值在0.2μm波动;最后利用Taylor Hobson轮廓仪和高精度辅助测量夹具对120mm口径的非球面光学元件进行测量实验并研究工件运动量对拼接测量精度的影响。实验结果表明,当控制平移量在10mm以内和旋转角度在8°以下时,拼接误差的标准偏差值在0.2~0.6μm之间,能满足磨削阶段光学元件亚μm级精度的面形检测要求。     

The influence of the group delay of digital filters on acoustic decay measurements

In this paper the error due to the phase response of digital filters on acoustic decay measurements is analyzed. There are two main sources of errors when an acoustic decay is filtered: the error due to the bandwidth of the filters related to their magnitude response, and the error due to their phase response. In this investigation the two components are separated and the phase error analyzed in terms of the group delay of the filters. Linear phase FIR filters and minimum phase IIR filters fulfilling the class 1 requirements of the IEC 61260 standard have been designed, and their errors compared. This makes it possible to explain the behavior of the phase error and develop recommendations for the use of each filtering technique. The paper is focused on the filtering techniques covered by current versions of the standards for measurement of acoustic decays and in the evaluation of the acoustic decay for narrow filters at low frequencies and low reverberation times (BT < 16).     

Error analysis for a Mach-Zehnder type speckle interferometer

A phase shifting speckle interferometer based on a Mach-Zehnder geometry is presented. The displacement field is measured using an electro-optic phase shifting technique. An analytical investigation of the accuracy of the interferometer is performed by considering the most contributing error sources. It is shown that in the case of the use of a low power laser source, the geometrical aberration of the optical component is the main contribution to the systematic errors. The case of the sampling of a full measurement is investigated. It is demonstrated that the systematic error of the full measurement has the same statistics as those given by a simple acquisition. Experimental results are reported in the case of the measurement of the deformation of industrial connectors submitted to a crushing test. It is found that for a peak to valley of 32 μm, the trueness of the measurement appears higher than 160 nm.     

基于长波红外光谱的热态锻件温度场测量方法研究

提出一种长波红外光谱的温度场测量方法。将谱色测温原理与三级Fabry-Perot(FP)型Liquid Crystal Tunable Filter(LCTF)相结合,并对测温理论模型中三组非线性相关方程组所得的解进行了优化,以进一步减小误差,使测量值更加客观、真实;然后运用液晶双折射可调谐滤光原理,制作了三级FP型LCTF滤光系统,该系统在一定的长波红外光谱范围内实现了波长的任意调谐,从而保证测温系统的响应快速、准确。该方法测温前无需知晓被测物发射率,且能有效抑制背景光辐射和环境光源对测温精度带来的影响,保证了测温结果的准确性。最后通过matlab仿真软件验证了滤光系统所得红外光谱符合系统设计要求,并通过实验验证了该测温方法的可行性,测温准确性较之传统的单波段红外热像仪得到了提高。     

Multiple Scattering Between Adjacent Sound Sources in Head-Related Transfer Function Measurement System

To accelerate head-related transfer functions (HRTFs) measurement, two or more independent sound sources are usually employed in the measurement system. However, the multiple scattering between adjacent sound sources may influence the accuracy of measurement. On the other hand, the directivity of sound source could induce measurement error. Therefore, a model consisting of two spherical sound sources with approximate omni-directivity and a rigid-spherical head is proposed to evaluate the errors in HRTF measurement caused by multiple scattering between sources. An example of analysis using multipole re-expansion indicates that the error of ipsilateral HRTFs are within the bound of ± 1.0 dB below a frequency of 20 kHz, provided that the sound source radius does not exceed 0.025 m, the source distance relative to head center is not less than 0.5 m, and the angular interval between two adjacent sources is not less than 20 degrees. Similar conclusions under different conditions can also be analyzed and discussed by using this calculation method. Furthermore, the results are verified by measurements of HRTFs for a rigid sphere and a KEMAR artificial head.     

F-P标准具温度特性对光纤光栅波长解调精度的影响

F-P标准具的特性易受温度影响,温度变化时,其透射峰会发生漂移,将其应用于光纤光栅波长解调时,温度波动会给波长解调精度带来影响。分析了F-P标准具的温度特性对光纤光栅波长解调精度的影响程度,并分别采用温度稳定性为1.5 GHz和3 GHz的F-P标准具进行了稳定性和重复性实验。实验结果表明:光纤光栅传感器的中心波长不同,由F-P标准具的温度特性产生的解调误差也不同;采用2种F-P标准具测得的稳定性误差最大值分别为0.528 pm和0.676 pm,重复性误差最大值分别为1.77 pm和2.01 pm。     

Measurement Accuracy in Phase-Shifting Point Diffraction Interferometer with Two Optical Fibers

A phase-shifting point diffraction interferometer (PS/PDI) with point sources of two single mode optical fibers has been developed, which will be appropriate for the surface figure measurement of large aperture optics on a sub-nanometer scale. To reduce the measurement error factors, a fiber optic plate (FOP) is used as a projection plane for interference pattern. Errors caused by imperfection of optical alignment, such as position of point sources and tilt of FOP, are minimized by analyzing the measured phase data with an original method. Measurement accuracy in the PS/ PDI is estimated with the interference pattern produced by the two optical fiber sources. If inhomogeneity of the FOP and a systematic error of the PS/PDI are eliminated, the measurement accuracy of the present system is estimated to be less than 4nm P-V and 0.7nm rms, respectively, at a measurement wavelength of 632.8 nm.     

空间目标红外双波段比色测温法精度分析

针对空间目标与地基望远镜红外成像传感器终端之间的不确知参量将降低双波段比色测温法求解精度,且精度影响程度未知,假设目标为灰体,对包含不确知参量的最大似然估计函数关于发射率求偏导,建立基于红外探测器测量电子数的双波段比色测温数学模型,并进行双波段比色测温法的蒙特卡洛仿真实验与精度分析。对于大气透过率的估算,提出应用红外自然星体的大气透过率现场标校方法。空间目标温度反演精度与成像探测器的信噪比、大气透过率、地球热辐射以及波段之间的发射率差异等未知参量的估算精度有关。结果表明:信噪比高于20,波段之间发射率差异小于0.03,地球热辐射预测精度优于50%,大气透过率预测精度优于10%时,比色测温法优于40 K的温度估计精度。