Morphology and scaling of impact craters in granular media

We present the results of experiments on impact craters formed by dropping a steel ball vertically into a container of small glass beads. As the energy of impact increases, we observe a progression of crater morphologies analogous to that seen in craters on the moon. We find that both the diameter and the depth of the craters are proportional to the 1/4 power of the energy. The ratio of crater diameter to rim-to-floor depth is constant for low-energy impacts, but increases at higher energy, similar to what is observed for lunar craters.     

Unipolar Arc Tracks on Stainless Steel

Craters caused by unipolar arcs on stainless steel depend strongly on surface conditions. There are three diameter distributions: Small craters (～ 0.3 μm) for oxidised surfaces, larger craters (～ 2 μm) for moderately cleaned areas, and very large craters (～ 20 μm) for clean surfaces. These values are compatible with Joule heating models of crater formation. Compared with other metals of interest, stainless steel shows the largest craters.     

Low-speed impact craters in loose granular media

We report on craters formed by balls dropped into dry, noncohesive, granular media. By explicit variation of ball density rho(b), diameter D(b), and drop height H, the crater diameter is confirmed to scale as the 1/4 power of the energy of the ball at impact: D(c) approximately equal (rho(b)D(3)(b)H)(1/4). Against expectation, a different scaling law is discovered for the crater depth: d approximately equal (rho(3/2)(b)D(2)(b)H)(1/3). The scaling with properties of the medium is also established. The crater depth has significance for granular mechanics in that it relates to the stopping force on the ball.     

表面状态对强流脉冲电子束辐照诱发金属表面熔坑的影响

 为了考察材料晶体学特性对表面熔坑形成机制的影响,利用强流脉冲电子束（HCPEB）对喷丸前、后的304奥氏体不锈钢进行表面辐照处理,对HCPEB诱发的表面熔坑形貌进行了详细的表征。实验结果表明,HCPEB辐照后样品表面形成了大量的火山状熔坑,熔坑数密度和熔坑尺寸随电子束能量的增加而减小,材料表面的杂质或夹杂物容易成为熔坑的核心,并在熔坑形成的喷发过程中被清除,起到净化表面的作用。此外,喷丸前、后样品表面熔坑数密度遵循相似的分布规律,喷丸处理使熔坑数密度显著增大,表明材料的晶体学特性对表面熔坑形成有重要的影响,晶界、位错等结构缺陷是熔坑形核的择优位置。     

Investigation of the interaction between electrical discharges and low resistivity silicon substrates

In this work the impact of single discharge pulses in air on single-crystalline, p-type silicon having a low bulk resistivity of 0.009-0.012 Ω cm is investigated. Compared to platinum specimens, the craters in silicon have lateral dimensions which are about one order of magnitude larger despite comparable values for the melting point and the melting energy. This finding is attributed to the substantially higher bulk resistivity of silicon leading a higher energy input into the substrate when spark loaded. The energy generated by joule heating is, however, distributed across a larger area due to a current spreading effect. To study the impact of different surface properties on the sparking behaviour, the crater formation on the silicon substrate is investigated applying coatings with different material properties, such as sputter-deposited aluminium layers and thermally-grown silicon dioxide. In general, the crater characteristics formed on unmodified silicon is not influenced when a thin aluminium layer of 24 nm is deposited. At higher film thickness above 170 nm, the sparking energy is almost completely absorbed in the top layer with low influence on the underlying silicon substrate. In the case of a dielectric top layer with a thickness of 155 nm, the formation of many small distinct craters is supported in contrast to a 500 nm-thick SiO₂ film layer where the generation of a single crater with a large area is energetically favoured. A surface roughness of several nm on the silicon probes has no measurable effect on crater formation when compared to an original surface characteristic with values in the sub-nm range.     

Study of femtosecond ablation on aluminum film with 3D two-temperature model and experimental verifications

In this paper, a 3D two-temperature model is introduced to investigate femtosecond ablation on aluminum film. 3D temperature evolutions for both electrons and lattice are obtained, which present us a vivid view of the energy transformation process during femtosecond ablation. Simulated 3D ablation craters irradiated by a single pulse with different energy are acquired, from which we can easily and precisely predict crater depth and radius before ablation takes place. In the experiment we measure the radii of the craters ablated by pulses with different energy and numbers delivered from a chirped pulse amplification Ti: sapphire system. The threshold fluence for both single and multi pulses are obtained. Comparisons are made between results of the experiment and relative simulated calculations show the reliability of our proposed calculation model.     

Study on the damage of SiO2 thin films on LiNbO3 crystal in optical parametric oscillator by XRD spectrometry

In an attempt to elucidate the damage in high transmission thin films on LiNbO3 crystal in optical parametric oscillator, the authors employed XRD spectrometry to investigate the spectrum of laser-induced damage in thin film as well as the morphology of the damage. The authors observed that the damage of thin film was characterized by the depressions/craters in the surface of the films, which were surrounded by a deposition layer with the deceasing thickness from the center of the craters. The XRD measurements indicate that the film was crystallized. The authors analyzed the causes of morphologies and the mechanism of crystallization with the aid of the model for impurity-induced damage in thin solid films. The crystallization was due to the solidification of liquid and gaseous mixtures that result from the strong absorbing to the incident laser. The crater was generated because the mixtures were ejected under the extensive pressure of the laser plasma shock wave. During the process that the mixtures deposit around the craters, the density of the mixtures will decrease and crystallization takes place. As a result, the color of the deposition layer becomes lighter from inside to outside, and the crystallization of the thin film materials was observed by XRD spectrometry.     

Investigation of a sodium-chloride-damage region by femtosecond laser

The damaged regions (craters) arising under optical destruction of a sodium-chloride surface by 40-fs pulses emitted from a terawatt titanium?sapphire laser system are investigated. The dependence of the sizes of the damaged spot and the crater depth on the laser-pulse energy are determined at a wavelength of 800 nm.     

Displacement of Field Emitters by Vacuum Discharges

The location of field emitting micro-points, produced by nanosecond discharges in UHV, has been investigated by field emission microscopy. Weak discharges (duration < 5 ns, current < 10 A) caused a displacement of the field emission over the cathode by a distance that corresponds to average crater diameters (4–6 μm). Thus new emitters are produced at the boundary of discharge craters. More intense discharges show sometimes a far higher displacement. This can be explained by the formation of micro-points by splashes of molten metal that fly out of the discharge craters. The results support the model of the development of micro-points, as it was published in [1]. They show furthermore that the motion of arc cathode spots can be related to the displacement of microscopic field emitters.     

Influence of substrate temperature on surface textured ZnO:Al films etched with NaOH solution

Transparent conducting Al-doped ZnO (ZnO:Al, AZO) thin films with good optical and electrical characteristics were prepared by direct current pulse magnetron sputtering. Textured surfaces of AZO films were obtained by etching with NaOH solution successfully and the effect of substrate temperature on the surface texture was investigated. The surface is covered with craters after etching with 5% NaOH solution, and the crater diameter decreases gradually as substrate temperature increases. For AZO film deposited at 270, the crater diameters is 0.5-1 μm, which is an effective surface texture for light trapping.     

气体团簇离子束两步能量修形法的平坦化效应

本文提出采用气体团簇离子束的两步能量修形法来改善4H-SiC(1000)晶片表面形貌.先用15 keV的高能Ar团簇离子进行整体修形,再用5 keV的低能团簇离子优化表面.结果表明,在相同的团簇离子剂量下,与单一15 keV的高能团簇处理相比,两步法修形后的表面具有更低的均方根粗糙度,两者分别为1.05 nm和0.78 nm.本文还以原子级平坦表面为研究对象,揭示了载能团簇引起的半球形离子损伤(弧坑)与团簇能量的关系,及两步能量修形法在弧坑修复中的优势.在原子力显微镜表征的基础上,引入了二维功率谱密度函数,以直观全面地给出材料的表面形貌特征及其随波长(频率)的分布.结果表明,经任何能量的团簇离子轰击的表面,在0.05—0.20μm波长范围内,团簇轰击都能有效地降低粗糙度,而在0.02—0.05μm范围内,则出现了粗化效应,这是由于形成了半球形离子损伤,但第二步更低能量的团簇离子处理可以削弱这种粗化效应.     

Numerical simulations for description of UV laser interaction with gold nanoparticles embedded in silica

We have performed simulations of laser energy deposition in an engineered absorbing defect (i.e. metal nanoparticle) and the surrounding fused silica taking into account various mechanisms for the defect-induced absorption of laser energy by SiO₂. Then, to simulate the damage process in its entirety, we have interfaced these calculations of the energy absorption with a 2-D Lagrange–Euler hydrodynamics code, which can simulate crack formation and propagation leading to craters. The validation of numerical simulations requires detailed knowledge of the different parameters involved in the interaction. To concentrate on a simple situation, we have made and tested a thin-film system based on calibrated gold nanoparticles (600-nm diameter) inserted between two silica layers. Some aspects of our simulations are then compared with our experimental results. We find reasonable agreement between the observed and simulated crater sizes.     

Direct evidence for projectile charge-state dependent crater formation due to fast ions

We report on craters formed by individual 3 MeV/u Au (q(ini)+) ions of selected incident charge states q_(ini) penetrating thin layers of poly(methyl methacrylate). Holes and raised regions are formed around the region of the impact, with sizes that depend strongly and differently on q_(ini). Variation of q_(ini) of the film thickness and of the angle of incidence allows us to extract information about the depth of origin contributing to different crater features.     

Nano hillock and complex crater formation by low-energy proton implantation with incident angle into lithium niobate single crystal

The formation of nano-size hillocks and simple and complex craters was observed as a result of ion–surface collisions with a lithium niobate single crystal on proton implantation. The low-energy ion implantation process is considered as a controllable and versatile tool for surface and near-surface modifications down to an atomic scale as an alternative to the swift heavy ion irradiation effect. Lithium niobate samples implanted by proton ions with a low energy of 120 keV at various fluences (10¹⁵ and 10¹⁶ protons/cm²) were studied using atomic force microscopy (AFM). The images of surface modification appear as simple and complex crater formation in the case of incident ions at normal to the surface. Varying the angle of incidence to θ=30° with respect to the normal to the surface, hillocks and multi-hillocks were observed. The complex craters with central uplifted, cone-shaped hillocks with a height of up to 4.3 nm are surrounded by low-height (1 nm) rims. The hillock height varies from a few nanometers to 16 nm with the basal diameter from 200 to 340 nm depending on the ion implantation conditions. The complex crater and hillock formation on the lithium niobate sample surface at the collision spot with the impact of incident angle is discussed.     

Laser-induced ablation and crater formation at high laser flux

Laser ablation and crater formation have been studied on a copper target using a 10 Hz Nd:YAG laser system delivering pulses up to 100 mJ in 40 ps with a flux on target F?≤?5000 J/cm². Crater dimensions were measured using optical microscope or scanning electron microscope. In order to understand the process of crater formation, we considered various theoretical models present in the literature and revised them taking into account the occurrence of plasma phenomena, which are important at the intensities used in this experiment. We also compared our experimental results with other results obtained at the PALS laboratory, using a 0.44 μm wavelength laser and much higher laser intensities. Finally, we explore the possibility of extending the information derived from laser-produced craters to other types of craters.     

Study of the conditions for the effective energy transfer in a process of acceleration and collision of the thin metal disks with the massive target

Efficiency studies of laser driven thin metal disks acceleration using the first harmonic (λ₁=1.315 μm) of the Prague Asterix Laser System (PALS) and subsequent craters creation produced by collisions of these disks with massive targets are presented. Several different disks made of aluminium and copper foils with diameters of 300 μm and 600 μm and thicknesses of 11 μm (Al) and 3.6 μ m (Cu) were employed. Disks were placed at the distance of either 100 μ m or 300 μm in front of aluminium massive targets. The following irradiation conditions were used: the laser beam energy of 120 J, the focal spot diameter of 200 μm, and the pulse duration of 0.4 ns (FWHM). A three-frame interferometric system was employed to determine electron density distributions in plasma corona. Shape and volume of craters were obtained by crater replica technology and microscopy measurements. The aim of these investigations was to analyse conditions leading to the most effective energy transfer in the process of collision of the accelerated disks with solid targets. The overall efficiency of these processes was characterized by the volume of craters produced in such targets.     

Measurement of crater geometries after laser ablation of bone tissue with optical coherence tomography

The feasibility of measuring crater geometries by use of optical coherence tomography (OCT) is examined. Bovine shank bone on a motorized translation stage with a motion velocity of 3 mm/s is ablated with a pulsed CO2 laser in vitro. The laser pulse repetition rate is 60 Hz and the spot size on the tissue surface is 0.5 mm. Crater geometries are evaluated immediately by both OCT and histology methods after laser irradiation. The results reveal that OCT is capable of measuring crater geometries rapidly and noninvasively as compared to histology. There are good correlation and agreement between crater depth estimates obtained by two techniques, whereas there exists distinct difference between crater width estimates when the carbonization at the sides of craters is not removed.     

Erosion Craters and Arc Cathode Spots in Vacuum

The development of erosion craters on clean, smooth cathodes in UHV has been investigated with a time resolution of nanoseconds (current range 10–200 A). Furthermore, crater size erosion rate and velocity of spot displacement have been measured in dependence on current and surface conditions. The relevance of the results for different cathode spot models is discussed in detail. From the measurements the following conclusions are drawn. The craters are caused by the action of the discharge pressure on the molten metal within a spot. The spots move in a random manner in elementary steps of a crater radius with time constants of the order of 10^?8 s. The main reason for the movement is the formation of micropoints at crater boundaries. Droplets and contaminations induce jumps of more than a crater radius. The impact of droplets causes considerable deformations of the cathode surface. Nanosecond pulse breakdowns and quasi-stationary arcs result in values of crater size, spot velocity and erosion rate that are comparable within an order of magnitude. These results support a non-stationary spot model that describes the cathode spot as a sequence of surface explosions.     

Radiation effects on poly(methyl methacrylate) induced by pulsed laser irradiations

Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) was irradiated using a medical UV-ArF excimer laser operating at the fundamental wavelength of 193 nm. Characterized by a beam diameter of 1.8 mm and energy of 180 mJ with a Gaussian energy profile, it operates in a single mode or at 30 Hz repetition rate. Mechanical profilometry was carried out on ablation craters in order to study the rugosity and the ablation yield in the various operative conditions. Optical transmission and reflection measurements at six wavelengths were conducted in order to characterize the optical properties of the irradiated surfaces. Measured crater depths in PMMA were lower with respect to the forecasted ones in corneal tissue, while the lateral crater aperture was maintained. The rugosity produced at the crater bottom after irradiation was about 0.3 μm, and the ablation yield was about 10¹⁵ molecules/laser pulse, while etching depth and diameter show a roughly linear dependence on the number of laser shots. These experiments constitute a base for deeper clinical investigations.     

Crater geometry characterization of Al targets irradiated by single pulse and pulse trains of Nd:YAG laser in ambient air and water

High intensities laser pulses are capable to generate a crater when irradiating metal targets. In such condition, after each irradiation significant ablation occurs on the target surface and as a result a crater is formed. The crater characterization is very important specifically for some applications such as micromachining. In this paper, the crater formation in metal targets was studied experimentally. The planar aluminum 5052 targets were irradiated by frequency doubled (532 nm), Q-switched Nd:YAG (∼6 ns) laser beam in ambient air and distilled water. A crater was produced after each irradiation and it was characterized by an optical microscope. Different laser intensities as well as pulse trains were applied for crater formation. The effects of laser characteristics in crater geometry were examined. The depth of the craters was measured by optical microscope and the diameter (width) was characterized by processing of the crater image. The results were explained in terms of ablation threshold and plasma shielding. The results show that the crater geometry extremely depends on the laser pulse intensity, the number of laser pulses, and ambient.