Heavily doped Si:P emitters of crystalline Si solar cells: recombination due to phosphorus precipitation

The measured saturation current density J_0e of heavily phosphorus‐doped emitters of crystalline Si solar cells is analysed by means of sophisticated numerical device modelling. It is concluded that Shockley–Read–Hall (SRH) recombination exceeds Auger recombination significantly; it is caused by inactive phosphorus. This explains the large discrepancies between measured and simulated J_0e values, observed persist‐ently over the last two decades in industrially fabricated Si solar cells. As a consequence, the heavily phosphorus‐diffused emitters still bear a significant potential to contribute to higher Si solar cell efficiency levels, if the amount of inactive phosphorus can be reduced. (© 2014 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH &Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

A new proposal for Si tandem solar cell: Significant efficiency enhancement in 3C–SiC/Si

In order to considerable enhancement of the efficiency of silicon solar cells, in this paper, for the first time, we present a new proposal for silicon based tandem solar cells. For investigation of this idea, we have evaluated the characteristics of 3C–SiC/Si crystalline tandem solar cells connected series by a tunneling junction, under air mass 1.5 global irradiance spectrums. A 2D simulation including the effects of surface passivation, back surface field (BSF), and carrier tunneling have been performed to obtain the optical and electrical characteristics of single junction silicon, 3C–SiC, and finally the tandem cells. The obtained data illustrate that the best design parameters considering the experimental limitations can be obtained. High energy conversion efficiency for the proposed structure of 26.09% has been achieved for 3C–SiC/Si tandem structure driven by 20.49% and 17.86% conversion efficiencies of single junction Si and 3C–SiC solar cells, respectively. Our results justifies that the higher conversion efficiency of the Si-based tandem structure compared with 3C–SiC and Si cells stems from enhancement of open circuit voltage and fill factor parameter at the hands of decrease in short circuit current limited by the top 3C–SiC cell.     

Microcrystalline silicon‐carbon alloys as anti‐reflection window layers in high efficiency thin film silicon solar cells

Microcrystalline silicon‐carbide (μc‐SiC:H) films were prepared using hot wire chemical vapor deposition at low substrate temperature. The μc‐SiC:H films were employed as window layers in microcrystalline silicon (μc‐Si:H) solar cells. The short‐circuit current density (J_SC) in these n‐side illuminated n–i–p cells increases with increasing the deposition time t_W of the μc‐SiC:H window layer from 5 min to 60 min. The enhanced J_SC is attributed to both the high transparency and an anti‐reflection effect of the μc‐SiC:H window layer. Using these favourable optical properties of the μc‐SiC:H window layer in μc‐Si:H solar cells, a J_SC value of 23.8 mA/cm² and cell efficiencies above 8.0% were achieved with an absorber layer thickness of 1 μm and a Ag back reflector. (© 2008 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Light Trapping and Down‐Shifting Effect of Periodically Nanopatterned Si‐Quantum‐Dot‐Based Structures for Enhanced Photovoltaic Properties

Periodically nanopatterned Si structures have been prepared by using a nanosphere lithography technique. The formed nanopatterned structures exhibit good anti‐reflection and enhanced optical absorption characteristics. The mean surface reflectance weighted by AM1.5 solar spectrum (300–1200 nm) is as low as 5%. By depositing Si quantum dot/SiO₂ multilayers (MLs) on the nanopatterned Si substrate, the optical absorption is higher than 90%, which is significantly improved compared with the same multilayers deposited on flat Si substrate. Furthermore, the prototype n‐Si/Si quantum dot/SiO₂ MLs/p‐Si heterojunction solar cells has been fabricated, and it is found that the external quantum efficiency is obviously enhanced for nanopatterned cell in a wide spectral range compared with the flat cell. The corresponding short‐circuit current density is increased from 25.5 mA cm^?2 for flat cell to 29.0 mA cm^?2 for nano‐patterned one. The improvement of cell performance can be attributed both to the reduced light loss and the down‐shifting effect of Si quantum dots/SiO₂ MLs by forming periodically nanopatterned structures.     

InGaAsP/InGaAs tandem cells for a solar cell configuration with more than three junctions

Currently, triple‐junction solar cells realized from III–V semiconductor compounds hold the solar energy conversion efficiency world record. To improve the efficiency significantly, it is necessary to increase the number of junctions and to involve a sub‐cell with an absorber layer in the band gap range of 1 eV. For the realization of a stacked four‐junction device with optimised band gaps, we have grown InGaAsP/InGaAs tandem cells lattice matched to InP substrates, and investigated properties of the absorber bulk material. Time‐resolved photoluminescence of the low band gap In_0.53Ga_0.47As absorber embedded between InP barriers was measured. The InGaAs/GaAsSb tunnel diode structure used in the tandem has been processed into a separate device and I –V curves were measured. (© 2008 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Improved performance of silicon‐nanoparticle film‐coated dye‐sensitized solar cells

Silicon (Si) nanoparticles with average size of 13 nm and orange–red luminescence under UV absorption were synthesized using electrochemical etching of silicon wafers. A film of Si nanoparticles with thickness of 0.75 µm to 2.6 µm was coated on the glass (TiO₂ side) of a dye‐sensitized solar cell (DSSC). The cell exhibited nearly 9% enhancement in power conversion efficiency (η) at film thickness of ～2.4 µm under solar irradiation of 100 mW/cm² (AM 1.5) with improved fill factor and short‐circuit current density. This study revealed for the first time that the Si‐nanoparticle film converting UV into visible light and helping in homogeneous irradiation, can be utilized for improving the efficiency of the DSSCs. (© 2012 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Buried emitter solar cell structures: Decoupling of metallisation geometry and carrier collection geometry of back contacted solar cells

We present a novel solar cell structure, the “buried emitter solar cell”. This concept is designed for decoupling the metallisation geometry from the geometry of the carrier collecting p–n junction in back‐contacted (and in particular back‐junction) solar cells without requiring electrical insulation by dielectric layers. The most prominent features of this device structure are a carrier collecting emitter that covers close to 100% of the total cell area and an effective electrical insulation between emitter and base metallisation via a p⁺–n⁺ junction. The experimental results presented in this paper report a 19.5% efficient “buried emitter solar cell”, where 50% of the solar cell's rear side exhibit a p⁺–n⁺ junction. This preparation technique implies covering a boron‐doped p‐type emitter with an n‐type surface layer that can be efficiently surface‐passivated by thermal oxidation. All structuring of this cell has been performed by laser processing without any photo‐lithography. (© 2008 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

基于分布式布拉格反射器结构的空间三结砷化镓太阳能电池抗辐照研究

根据电子辐照条件下的常规三结砷化镓太阳能电池光谱响应以及电池电流的损伤特征, 确定电池衰减的物理机理: 中电池在电子辐照后形成的辐照损伤缺陷, 使得基区少子扩散长度被大幅缩短, 影响了光生载流子的收集. 针对中电池衰减的物理机理, 设计不同的基区厚度, 验证辐照后扩散长度缩短至1.5 μm左右. 为提升中电池抗辐照性能, 消除辐照后扩散长度缩减带来的影响, 对中电池外延结构进行设计, 将中电池基区减薄至1.5 μm, 并在其下方嵌入分布式布拉格反射器, 对特定波段光反射进行二次吸收, 弥补中电池减薄的影响. 通过TFCalc光学模系设计软件模拟出的中心波长为850 nm, 15对Al_0.9Ga_0.1As/Al_0.1Ga_0.9As的分布式布拉格反射器, 实际测试最高反射率大于97%, 高反带宽94 nm, 能够满足设计要求. 此基础上进行了新结构电池的外延生长与辐照测试对比. 实验结果表明: 新结构太阳能电池辐照后短路电流衰减比原结构降低了50%, 效率的剩余因子提升2.3%.     

硅基有机太阳能电池光学性能分析

采用传输矩阵法的光学模型以及MATLAB软件模拟了硅基有机太阳能电池对入射光的吸收率和各层厚度的关系。模拟表明活性层对入射光的吸收率主要受其自身厚度影响,且由于微腔效应,这种结构的电池可以很大程度上优化活性层厚度;另外通过调节折射率匹配层厚度和传输层厚度也可以优化活性层对入射光的吸收率。在本文所讨论的厚度中,最佳传输层厚度为10 nm左右,最佳匹配层厚度为30 nm ZnS或者60 nm Alq₃。     

Inverse relation between photocurrent and absorption layer thickness in polymer solar cells

Organic solar cells based on polymer–fullerene bulk heterojunctions were optimised with respect to the short circuit photocurrent by means of optical modelling. Due to interference effects present in the thin film multilayer device, an inverse relation between active layer thickness and photocurrent was predicted and experimentally verified. Optimised photovoltaic devices yield power conversion efficiencies of 4%. (© 2007 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Light Harvesting and Enhanced Performance of Si Quantum Dot/Si Nanowire Heterojunction Solar Cells

Si nanowires (Si NWs) structures with good antireflection and enhanced optical‐absorption properties are used to fabricate Si quantum dots/Si NWs heterojunction solar cells. The Si NWs prepared by the metal‐assisted chemical‐etching technique exhibit a very low reflection in a wide spectral range (300–1200 nm). Correspondingly, the optical absorption reaches as high as 88.9% by weighting AM1.5G solar spectrum. Both the short current density and open current voltage are improved compared to the reference flat cell. However, the photovoltaic properties are degraded by varying the Si NWs with long etching time, possibly due to the increased etching‐induced surface states. The optimal Si NWs lead to the best cell with the power conversion efficiency of 11.3%.     

Nano-imprint for near-zero reflected Si solar cells

The periodically patterned Si nanopyramid solar cell shielded with SiN_x-passivation layer was fabricated using nano-imprint method. The fabricated nanopyramid Si solar cell demonstrated the near-zero reflectivity over a wide range of wavelengths. With a SiN_x-coating layer, nanopyramids showed 0.366% reflection. A SiN_x-coated nanopyramid Si is efficient to improve the carrier collection for broad wavelengths due to intrinsically low light-reflection of Si nanopyramid structures. SiN_x-passivation effectively controls carrier collection efficiencies of nanopyramid structures, resulting in significant improves short wavelength lights. We systematically investigated optical and electrical performances of nanoscale solar cells and suggest a route to realize high-efficient nanoscale solar cells. The importance and influence of SiN_x-passivation layer and nanopyramid structure in Si based solar cell were explained in detail with optical and electrical characteristics.     

High-Efficiency Silicon Solar Cells—Materials and Devices Physics

High-efficiency Si solar cells have attracted great attention from researchers, scientists, engineers of photovoltaic (PV) industry for the past few decades. Many researchers, scientists, and engineers in both academia and industry seek solutions to improve the cell efficiency and reduce the cost. This desire has drawn stronger support from major funding agencies and industry and stimulated a growing number of major research and research infrastructure programs, and a rapidly increasing number of publications in this filed. This article reviews materials, devices, and physics of high-efficiency Si solar cells developed over the last 20 years and presents representative examples of superior performances and competitive advantages. In this paper there is a fair number of topics, not only from the material viewpoint, introducing various materials that are required for high-efficiency Si solar cells, such as base materials (FZ-Si, CZ-Si, MCZ-Si, and multi-Si), emitter materials (diffused emitter and deposited emitter), passivation materials (Al-BSF, high-low junction, SiO₂, SiO_x, SiN_x, Al₂O₃ and a-Si:H), and other functional materials (antireflective layer, transparent conductive oxide and metal electrode), but also from the device and physics point of view, elaborating on physics, cell concept, development, and status of most types of high-efficiency Si solar cells, including passivated emitter and rear contact (PERC), passivated emitter and rear locally diffused (PERL), passivated emitter and rear totally-diffused (PERT), Pluto, PANDA, interdigitated back-contacted (IBC), emitter-wrap-through (EWT), metallization-wrap-through (MWT), heterojunction with intrinsic thin-layer (HIT), and so on. Finally, the technical data of these high-efficiency Si solar cells has been tabulated.     

Dopant‐free back contact silicon heterojunction solar cells employing transition metal oxide emitters

The present study investigates the electrical properties of transition metal oxide (TMO) emitters in dopant‐free n‐Si back contact solar cells by comparing the properties of solar cells employing three TMOs (WO_x, MoO_x and V₂O_x) with varying electrical properties acting as p‐type contacts. The TMOs are found to induce large band bending in n‐Si, which reduces the injection level dependent interfacial recombination speed S_eff and contact resistivity ρ_c. Among the TMO/n‐Si contacts considered, the V₂O_x/n‐Si contact achieves the lowest S_eff of 138 cm/s and ρ_c of 0.034 Ω cm², providing the significant advantages over heavily doped a‐Si:H(p)/n‐Si contacts. The best device performance was achieved by the V₂O_x/n‐Si solar cell, demonstrating an efficiency of 16.59% and an open‐circuit voltage of 610 mV relative to solar cells based on MoO_x/n‐Si (15.09%, 594 mV) and WO_x/n‐Si (12.44%, 539 mV). Furthermore, the present work is the first to employ WO_x, V₂O_x and Cs₂CO₃ in back contact solar cells. The fabrication process employed offers great potential for the mass production of back contact solar cells owing to simple, metal mask patterning with high alignment quality and dopant‐free steps conducted at a lower temperature.     

Comparison of D.C. and A.C. electro-analytical methods for measuring diode ideality factors and series resistances of silicon solar cells

The diode ideality factor (m) and the series resistance (R_s) of a Si solar cell represent two critical performance-indicator parameters of the device. Since both m and R_s are functions of voltage (V) and temperature (T), simultaneous electrical measurements of these parameters under variable conditions of V and T can often be difficult with traditional direct current (D.C.) techniques. Using the electro-analytical method of linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) and a commonly available Si solar cell, we explore these specific confines of such D.C. measurements. The results are compared with those obtained from a parallel set of alternating current (A.C.) measurements using impedance spectroscopy (IS). LSV provides the main D.C. parameters (open circuit voltage, short circuit current, fill factor, and efficiency) of the cell, but is limited in terms of independently measuring m and R_s beyond strong forward biased conditions. The IS approach is free of the latter experimental constraints, and at the same time can provide several other important electrical parameters of the solar cell. Specifically, IS detects the presence of a low-high (p–p⁺) junction at the back surface of the cell, and serves as an efficient probe of certain electrical characteristics of this junction.     

Calibrated numerical model of a GaInP–GaAs dual‐junction solar cell

In this letter a calibrated numerical model of a III–V dual‐junction solar cell including tunnel diode and Bragg reflector is presented. The quantum efficiencies of the subcells are computed by using the principle of current‐limitation in monolithic multi‐junction solar cells. A special procedure with bias‐illumination and bias‐voltage was implemented. Numerical simulations are used to study the influence of the top cell thickness on the cells' quantum efficiency and on the current‐matching condition. (© 2008 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Light‐induced degradation and regeneration of multicrystalline silicon Al‐BSF and PERC solar cells

Light‐induced degradation (LID) is a well‐known problem faced by p‐type Czochralski (Cz) monocrystalline silicon (mono‐Si) wafer solar cells. In mono‐Si material, the physical mechanism has been traced to the formation of recombination active boron‐oxygen (B–O) complexes, which can be permanently deactivated through a regeneration process. In recent years, LID has also been identified to be a significant problem for multicrystalline silicon (multi‐Si) wafer solar cells, but the exact physical mechanism is still unknown. In this work, we study the effect of LID in two different solar cell structures, aluminium back‐surface‐field (Al‐BSF) and aluminium local back‐surface‐field (Al‐LBSF or PERC (passivated emitter and rear cell)) multi‐Si solar cells. The large‐area (156 mm × 156 mm) multi‐Si solar cells are light soaked under constant 1‐sun illumination at elevated temperatures of 90 °C. Our study shows that, in general, PERC multi‐Si solar cells degrade faster and to a greater extent than Al‐BSF multi‐Si solar cells. The total degradation and regeneration can occur within ～320 hours for PERC cells and within ～200 hours for Al‐BSF cells, which is much faster than the timescales previously reported for PERC cells. An important finding of this work is that Al‐BSF solar cells can also achieve almost complete regeneration, which has not been reported before. The maximum degradation in Al‐BSF cells is shown to reduce from 2% (relative) to an average of 1.5% (relative) with heavier phosphorus diffusion.     

Passivation of black silicon boron emitters with atomic layer deposited aluminum oxide

The nanostructured surface – also called black silicon (b‐Si) – is a promising texture for solar cells because of its extremely low reflectance combined with low surface recombination obtained with atomic layer deposited (ALD) thin films. However, the challenges in keeping the excellent optical properties and passivation in further processing have not been addressed before. Here we study especially the applicability of the ALD passivation on highly boron doped emitters that is present in crystalline silicon solar cells. The results show that the nanostructured boron emitters can be passivated efficiently using ALD Al₂O₃ reaching emitter saturation current densities as low as 51 fA/cm². Furthermore, reflectance values less than 0.5% after processing show that the different process steps are not detrimental for the low reflectance of b‐Si. (© 2013 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Optical management in high‐efficiency thin‐film silicon micromorph solar cells with a silicon oxide based intermediate reflector

In the effort to increase the stable efficiency of thin film silicon micromorph solar cells, a silicon oxide based intermediate reflector (SOIR) layer is deposited in situ between the component cells of the tandem device. The effectiveness of the SOIR layer in increasing the photo‐carrier generation in the a‐Si:H top absorber is compared for p–i–n devices deposited on different rough, highly transparent, front ZnO layers. High haze and low doping level for the front ZnO strongly enhance the current density (J_sc) in the μc‐Si:H bottom cell whereas J_sc in the top cell is influenced by the angular distribution of the transmitted light and by the reflectivity of the SOIR related to different surface roughness. A total J_sc of 26.8 mA/cm² and an initial conversion efficiency of 12.6% are achieved for 1.2 cm² cells with top and bottom cell thicknesses of 300 nm and 3 μm, and without any anti‐reflective coating on the glass. (© 2008 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Semiconductor solar cells: Recent progress in terrestrial applications

In the last decade, the photovoltaic industry grew at a rate exceeding 30% per year. Currently, solar-cell modules based on single-crystal and large-grain polycrystalline silicon wafers comprise more than 80% of the market. Bulk Si photovoltaics, which benefit from the highly advanced growth and fabrication processes developed for microelectronics industry, is a mature technology. The light-to-electric power conversion efficiency of the best modules offered on the market is over 20%. While there is still room for improvement, the device performance is approaching the thermodynamic limit of ∼28% for single-junction Si solar cells. The major challenge that the bulk Si solar cells face is, however, the cost reduction. The potential for price reduction of electrical power generated by wafer-based Si modules is limited by the cost of bulk Si wafers, making the electrical power cost substantially higher than that generated by combustion of fossil fuels. One major strategy to bring down the cost of electricity generated by photovoltaic modules is thin-film solar cells, whose production does not require expensive semiconductor substrates and very high temperatures and thus allows decreasing the cost per unit area while retaining a reasonable efficiency. Thin-film solar cells based on amorphous, microcrystalline, and polycrystalline Si as well as cadmium telluride and copper indium diselenide compound semiconductors have already proved their commercial viability and their market share is increasing rapidly. Another avenue to reduce the cost of photovoltaic electricity is to increase the cell efficiency beyond the Shockley–Queisser limit. A variety of concepts proposed along this avenue forms the basis of the so-called third generation photovoltaics technologies. Among these approaches, high-efficiency multi-junction solar cells based on III–V compound semiconductors, which initially found uses in space applications, are now being developed for terrestrial applications. In this article, we discuss the progress, outstanding problems, and environmental issues associated with bulk Si, thin-film, and high-efficiency multi-junction solar cells.