Site‐Selective Remote Radical C−H Functionalization of Unactivated C−H Bonds in Amides Using Sulfone Reagents

A general and practical strategy for remote site‐selective functionalization of unactivated aliphatic C?H bonds in various amides by radical chemistry is introduced. C?H bond functionalization is achieved by using the readily installed N‐allylsulfonyl moiety as an N‐radical precursor. The in situ generated N‐radical engages in intramolecular 1,5‐hydrogen atom transfer to generate a translocated C radical which is subsequently trapped with various sulfone reagents to afford the corresponding C?H functionalized amides. The generality of the approach is documented by the successful remote C?N₃, C?Cl, C?Br, C?SCF₃, C?SPh, and C?C bond formation. Unactivated tertiary and secondary C?H bonds, as well as activated primary C?H bonds, can be readily functionalized by this method.     

Doubly charged fragment ions in the field ionization mass spectra of alkylbenzenes

It is shown that the radical [C₆H₅C_mH_2m]²⁺ fragment ions found in the field ionization mass spectra of alkylbenzenes are formed via a different adsorption state of the singly charged species than in the case of the formation of [M]²⁺ molecular ions. It is further demonstrated that the primary fragmentation of molecules by the cleavage of C? C bonds results not only from decompositions of molecular ions in the gas phase but also from surface reactions.     

Characterization of Radical SAM Adenosylhopane Synthase,HpnH, which Catalyzes the 5′‐Deoxyadenosyl Radical Addition to Diploptene in the Biosynthesis of C35 Bacteriohopanepolyols

Adenosylhopane is a crucial intermediate in the biosynthesis of bacteriohopanepolyols, which are widespread prokaryotic membrane lipids. Herein, it is demonstrated that reconstituted HpnH, a putative radical S‐adenosyl‐l ‐methionine (SAM) enzyme, commonly encoded in the hopanoid biosynthetic gene cluster, converts diploptene into adenosylhopane in the presence of SAM, flavodoxin, flavodoxin reductase, and NADPH. NMR spectra of the enzymatic reaction product were identical to those of synthetic (22R)‐adenosylhopane, indicating that HpnH catalyzes stereoselective C?C formation between C29 of diploptene and C5′ of 5′‐deoxyadenosine. Further, the HpnH reaction in D₂O‐containing buffer revealed that a D atom was incorporated at the C22 position of adenosylhopane. Based on these results, we propose a radical addition reaction mechanism catalyzed by HpnH for the formation of the C₃₅ bacteriohopane skeleton.     

Characterization of Radical SAM Adenosylhopane Synthase,HpnH, which Catalyzes the 5′-Deoxyadenosyl Radical Addition to Diploptene in the Biosynthesis of C35 Bacteriohopanepolyols

Adenosylhopane is a crucial intermediate in the biosynthesis of bacteriohopanepolyols, which are widespread prokaryotic membrane lipids. Herein, it is demonstrated that reconstituted HpnH, a putative radical S-adenosyl-l -methionine (SAM) enzyme, commonly encoded in the hopanoid biosynthetic gene cluster, converts diploptene into adenosylhopane in the presence of SAM, flavodoxin, flavodoxin reductase, and NADPH. NMR spectra of the enzymatic reaction product were identical to those of synthetic (22R)-adenosylhopane, indicating that HpnH catalyzes stereoselective C−C formation between C29 of diploptene and C5′ of 5′-deoxyadenosine. Further, the HpnH reaction in D₂O-containing buffer revealed that a D atom was incorporated at the C22 position of adenosylhopane. Based on these results, we propose a radical addition reaction mechanism catalyzed by HpnH for the formation of the C₃₅ bacteriohopane skeleton.     

Manganese‐Catalyzed Oxidative Azidation of Cyclobutanols: Regiospecific Synthesis of Alkyl Azides by CC Bond Cleavage

A novel, manganese‐catalyzed oxidative azidation of cyclobutanols is described. A wide range of primary, secondary, and tertiary alkyl azides were generated in synthetically useful yields and exclusive regioselectivity. Aside from linear alkyl azides, otherwise elusive medium‐sized cyclic azides were also readily prepared. Preliminary mechanistic studies reveal that the reaction likely proceeds by a radical‐mediated C? C bond cleavage/C? N₃ bond formation pathway.     

The oxidation and thermal transformations of macrooradicals in gamma irradiated cellulose

The secondary reactions of the oxidation and thermal transformations of gamma irradiated (at 77 K) and plasticized (with water) cellulose radicals were studied by 3 cm-and 2 mm-band EPR spectroscopy. The radiolysis of cotton cellulose was found to produce the H-C*=O formyl radical, and heating the irradiated samples to 190–200 K resulted in the formation of the ROO* peroxide radical. The EPR spectra of microcrystalline cellulose recorded at room temperature contained an individual triplet (α _β ^H = 2.5–2.7 mT) with an additional quadruplet structure (splitting 0.5–0.7 mT) from three γ-hydrogens. This triplet was interpreted as a signal of the primary radical at C4. The main direction of thermal transformations of primary radicals was synchronous reactions of the dehydration of the polycarbohydrate complex accompanied by the dissociation of the C-H, C-OH, and C-C bonds and elimination of H₂O, H₂, CO, and CO₂ with successive formation of allyl and then polyene radicals, which were a source of the growth of polyconjugated systems in macromolecules.     

Radical cation intermediates in the formation of schiff bases on irradiated semiconductor powders

Photocatalytic oxidation of several primary aliphatic amines on irradiated TiO₂ powders suspended in anhydrous acetonitrile led to good yields of the corresponding symmetrical N-alkylidene amines. Mechanistic electrochemical investigation of the reaction revealed intermediate formation of an immonium cation in an ECE route. This species is generated via electrooxidation of an α-amino radical formed by deprotonation of the primary oxidation product, an aminium cation radical. The influence of the metal oxide surface on radical cation reactivity is discussed.     

Mechanistic and kinetic study on the ozonolysis of 2,4-hexadienedial

The formation and unimolecular reactions of primary ozonides and carbonyl oxides arising from the O₃-initiated reactions of 2,4-hexadienedial (HDE) have been investigated using the density functional theory and ab initio method. The activation energies of O₃ cycloaddition to the >C=C< and >C=O bonds of HDE for the formation primary ozonides (POZ1 and POZ2) are 4.79 and 21.37 kcal mol^?1, respectively, implying that the initial O₃ to the >C=C< bond is favorable pathway. Cleavage of POZ1 to form carbonyl oxides occurs with a barrier of 12.19–21.35 kcal mol^?1, and the decomposition energies range from ?1.09 to ?15.75 kcal mol^?1. The CHOCHOO radical, the hydroxyl radical (OH) formation via H-migration is more favorable than the dioxirane formation via rearrangement. However, the CHOCH=CHCHOO radical, the dioxirane formation via rearrangement is more favorable than OH formation. Using the transition state theory, the rate constants of formation of POZ1 and POZ2 are 1.49 × 10^?19 and 6.03 × 10^?25 cm³ molecule^?1 s^?1 at 300 K, respectively. This study shows that the hyperconjugative effect makes O₃ addition to >C=C< and >C=O bonds of HDE more difficult than to >C=C< bond of ethylene and isoprene and to >C=O bond of formaldehyde. The largest rate constants of OH formation and dioxirane formation in the unimolecular reactions of carbonyl oxides are 6.13 × 10^?4 and 7.93 × 10^?1 s^?1 at 300 K, respectively. The dioxirane is main product in the unimolecular reaction of the carbonyl oxides arising from the O₃-initiated reaction of HDE.     

Mass spectrometry of metal compounds. Evidence of C?O cleavage in and effect of temperature on the mass spectra of chloropentacarbonylmanganese

The mass spectrum of Mn(CO)₅Cl has been studied at 70 eV and at varying inlet temperatures of 20–250°C. Like the heavier metal carbonyl derivatives, Mn(CO)₅Cl exhibits peaks due to carbido fragments. The spectrum run at 100°C shows the characteristic pattern of Mn₂(CO)₁₀ which originates from the formation and recombination of the Mn(CO)₅ radical. The spectral pattern changes further at an elevated temperature (250°C) showing the formation of Mn₂(CO)₈Cl₂. The effect of pyrolysis has been discussed.     

Radiation Chemistry of Polysaccharides: 1. Mechanisms of Carbon Monoxide and Formic Acid Formation

Based on an analysis of author's experimental results and published data on the buildup of HCOOH and CO in starches and other high polymers of glucose irradiated in the presence of O₂, it was concluded that both of these products result from multistage transformations of a primary radical of H abstraction from C1. Peroxide radicals are the source of HCOOH, whereas acyl radicals, which are produced in radical reactions with aldehyde groups, are the precursor of CO. Based on the values of G(HCOOH), G(CO), and G(cleavage) and the mass balance on these products, a conclusion was drawn that the formation of these products requires the degradation of three neighboring monomer units. A reaction mechanism for the formation of HCOOH and CO was proposed.     

Manganese‐Catalyzed Oxidative Azidation of Cyclobutanols: Regiospecific Synthesis of Alkyl Azides by C?C Bond Cleavage

A novel, manganese‐catalyzed oxidative azidation of cyclobutanols is described. A wide range of primary, secondary, and tertiary alkyl azides were generated in synthetically useful yields and exclusive regioselectivity. Aside from linear alkyl azides, otherwise elusive medium‐sized cyclic azides were also readily prepared. Preliminary mechanistic studies reveal that the reaction likely proceeds by a radical‐mediated C C bond cleavage/C N₃ bond formation pathway.     

PHOTOCHEMISTRY OF THYMIDINE AS A THIN SOLID FILM*

Abstract— –Photochemistry of thymidine in the solid state has been investigated. Four isomers of the cyclobutane-type thymidine dimer, two bimolecular addition products with u.v. absorbance maxima above 300 nm, (the formation of which involves the C=C and C=O groups of adjacent thymine residues) and 5-thyminyl-5.6 dihydrothymine (TDHT) (formed by the addition of a thyminyl radical at the C₅ position of a thymyl radical) were isolated. TDHT was found to be the major photoproduct. The results are compared with those for thymidine irradiated in the frozen state.     

Methylation of DNA bases by methyl free radicals: mechanism of formation of C8-methylguanine

The C8-methylguanine (C8mG) lesions are reported to be produced in vivo due to methylation of guanine base of DNA by methyl free (·CH₃) radicals derived from the carcinogen 1,2-dimethylhydrazines and tert-butylhydroperoxide. It is believed that C8mG lesions can induce G to T and G to C transversion mutations and deletions. However, the mechanisms of reactions of ·CH₃ radicals with DNA bases leading to formation of C8mG and other methylated DNA bases and their biological implications are not properly understood. In the present contribution, we have carried out density functional theory (DFT) calculations to ascertain the various stable methylated derivatives of all the four DNA bases that are formed by the attack of ·CH₃ radicals on DNA bases as well as to understand the mechanism of formation of C8mG due to reaction of ·CH₃ radicals with the C8 site of guanine. Our calculations reveal that ·CH₃ radical would form stable methylated products at the C8 sites of purine bases (guanine and adenine) and at the C5 and C6 sites of pyrimidine bases (cytosine and thymine) by directly attacking to bases. The C8mG is the most stable. This is in agreement with experimental observation. Further, we have found that in absence of any external agents, the C8mG is formed preferably by direct addition of a ·CH₃ radical to the C8 site of guanine followed by abstraction of the H8 hydrogen atom by another ·CH₃ radical. The barrier energies for these two steps are found to be 18.16 (18.73) and 16.05 (18.54) kcal/mol, respectively, as determined at the M06-2X/6-311+G(d,p) level of theory in gas phase (aqueous media). Thus, the present study explains the mechanism of formation of C8mG.     

Studies of the photochemical reactions of sulfur dioxide with pentane in the presence of nitrogen oxide

The spectrum of the intermediate product ascribed to nitrosopentane has been detected in the photolysis of the SO₂–pentane (RH)–NO mixture. This result has been interpreted in terms of the radical mechanism by assuming the H-atom abstraction from RH by the excited SO₂ molecules to be the primary act. The contribution of the singlet and triplet SO₂ states to the product formation rate and the ratio of the singlet-to-triplet rate constants have been evaluated. At NO pressures above 5 torr, the product formation rate significantly deviates from the Stern–Volmer dependence.     

Homolytic rearrangement of the di-n-butyl mercaptol of acetoacetic ester

Conclusions When heated with tert-butyl peroxide, the di-n-butyl mercaptol of acetoacetic ester (I) is largely converted into ethyl 3,4-bis(n-butylthio)butanoate (II) and 3-n-butylthio-2-butenoate (V). This transformation shows that the radicals CH₂C(SBu)₂CH₂CO₂Et (A) and CH₃C(SBu)₂CHCO₂Et (B) are formed from compound (I). The primary radical (A) isomerizes with 1,2-migration of BuS groups and with the formation of compound (II), while the secondary radical (B) largely undergoes fragmentation with elimination of a BuS^. radical to give compound (V) and (BuS)₂.Translated from Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Seriya Khimicheskaya, No. 11, pp. 2524–2527, November, 1976.The authors express their gratitude to V. I. Dostovalova for assistance in interpretation of the spectra.     

The thermal reaction of 2-pentene around 500°C at low extent of reaction

The thermal reaction of 2-pentene (cis or trans) has been performed in a static system over the temperature range of 470°–535°C at low extent of reaction and for initial pressures of 20–100 torr. The main products of decomposition are methane and 1,3-butadiene. Other minor primary products have been monitored: trans-2-pentene, trans- and cis-2-butenes, ethane, 1,3-pentadienes, 3-methyl-1-butene, propylene, 1-butene, hydrogen, ethylene, and 1-pentene. The initial orders of formation, 0.8–1.1 for most of the products and 1.5–1.8 for 1-pentene, increase with temperature. The formation of the products and the influence of temperature on their orders can be essentially explained by a free radical chain mechanism. But cis–trans or trans–cis isomerization and hydrogen elimination from cis-2-pentene certainly involve both molecular and free radical processes. The formation of 1-pentene mainly occurs from the abstraction of the hydrogen atom of 2-pentene by resonance stabilized free radicals (C₅H₉.).     

An oxyluminescence investigation of the auto-oxidation of nylon 66

The kinetics of the thermal oxidation of stabilised and unstabilised nylon 66 fibres and films have been studied by photon counting oxyluminescence methods from 50°C to 150°C. The activation energies for initiation (E₁), propagation (E₃) and termination (E₅) over this temperature range are: E₁ = 16 kcal mol^?1, E₃ = 17·5 kcal mol^?1 and E₅ ≈ 12 kcal mol^?1. The extent of orientation of the polymer does not change the nature of the oxyluminescence curve or E₃ and E₅ above 110°C.Significant losses of critical mechanical properties of the fibres occur in the induction period at 100°C and non-stationary kinetics are described to enable this region to be studied by oxyluminescence. The oxidation rate in the induction period and the limiting rate region in air is one-third the rate in oxygen at atmospheric pressure. Non-stationary methods show that alkyl radical reactions are competitive with alkyl peroxy radical formation in air over the temperature range 100°C to 140°C. This affects the course of the oxidation reaction and the stabiliser efficiency and explains the observation of unsaturated oxidation products by phosphorescence spectroscopy.     

Product formation from the reaction of the NO3 radical with isoprene and rate constants for the reactions of methacrolein and methyl vinyl ketone with the NO3 radical

Using a relative rate method, rate constants for the gas-phase reactions of the NO₃ radical with methacrolein and methyl vinyl ketone were determined to be (4.4 ± 1.7) × 10⁻¹⁵ cm³ molecule⁻¹ s⁻¹ and <6 × 10⁻¹⁶ cm³ molecule⁻¹ s⁻¹, respectively, at 296 ± 2 K. The molar formation yields of methacrolein and methyl vinyl ketone from the gas-phase reaction of the NO₃ radical with isoprene at 296 ± 2 K and atmospheric pressure of air were measured to be 0.035 ± 0.014 each. The tropospheric implications of these kinetic and product data are discussed, and it is concluded that the nighttime NO₃ radical reactions with methacrolein and methyl vinyl ketone are not important. However, during nighttime the formation of methacrolein and methyl vinyl ketone from the reaction of isoprene with the NO₃ radical may dominate over their formation from the O₃ reaction with isoprene. Atmospheric pressure ionization tandem mass spectrometry (API-MS/MS) was used to investigate the products of the reactions of the NO₃ radical with isoprene and isoprene-d₈, and C₅-nitrooxycarbonyl(s) (e.g., O₂NOCH₂C(CH₃) (DOUBLEBOND) CHCHO), C₅-hydroxynitrate(s) (e.g., O₂NOCH₂C(CH₃)(DOUBLEBOND) CHCH₂OH), C₅-nitrooxyhydroperoxide(s) (e.g., O₂NOCH₂C(CH₃)(DOUBLEBOND) CHCH₂OOH), and C₅-hydroxycarbonyl(s) (e.g., HOCH₂CH(DOUBLEBOND) C(CH₃)CHO) and their deuterated analogs were observed from these reactions. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

ESR study of the mechanism of radical formation during liquid-and solid-phase radiolyses of ethylamines

The formation of radicals during the liquid-phase radiolysis of ethylamine, diethylamine, and triethylamine was studied by means of the spin trapping technique. The radicals produced in ion-molecule reactions and in the rearrangement and fragmentation reactions of the primary radical cations of the amines were identified. The structure and reactions of the primary radical cations were studied in a low-temperature CFCl₃ freonic matrix in which amine radical cations were generated via charge transfer from matrix radical cations to amines during freon irradiation. The results of experiments in the liquid and solid phases are consistent with one another. The structure of neutral radicals and radical cations of the ethylamines was corroborated by quantum-chemical calculations.     

An ESR study of PMMA mechanoradicals and of their interaction with oxygen

Analysis of ESR spectra of mechanoradicals from poly(methyl methacrylate) reveals that after mechanical degradation in vacuo at 77°K, the sample contains two types of primary radicals? CH₂? C(CH₃)(COOCH₃) (I) and CH₂? C(CH₃)(COOCH₃)? CH₂ (II) produced by the breaking of the polymer chain, and secondary radicals ? CH₂? C(CH₃)(COOCH₃)? CH? C(CH₃)? (COOCH₃)? CH₂? (III). With increasing temperature, radical I remains stable while II reacts with methylene hydrogen of the polymer chain giving rise to the secondary radical III, which decays and finally disappears as the temperature rises. After admission of oxygen at 113°K, the polymer radicals react with oxygen with formation of polymer peroxy radicals ROO. and diamagnetic dimers. With increasing temperature the latter dissociate again to the original polymer peroxy radicals which gradually decay, if the temperature is increased further. The present results are compared with earlier ones obtained on poly(ethylene glycol methacrylate) (PGMA).