A review on electrode and electrolyte for lithium ion batteries under low temperature

Under low temperature (LT) conditions (−80 °C∼0 °C), lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) may experience the formation of an extensive solid electrolyte interface (SEI), which can cause a series of detrimental effects such as Li⁺ deposition and irregular dendritic filament growth on the electrolyte surface. These issues ultimately lead to the degradation of the LT performance of LIBs. As a result, new electrode/electrolyte materials are necessary to address these challenges and enable the proper functioning of LIBs at LT. Given that most electrochemical reactions in lithium-ion batteries occur at the electrode/electrolyte interface, finding solutions to mitigate the negative impact caused by SEI is crucial to improve the LT performance of LIBs. In this article, we analyze and summarize the recent studies on electrode and electrolyte materials for low temperature lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). These materials include both metallic materials like tin, manganese, and cobalt, as well as non-metallic materials such as graphite and graphene. Modified materials, such as those with nano or alloying characteristics, generally exhibit better properties than raw materials. For instance, Sn nanowire-Si nanoparticles (SiNPs−In-SnNWs) and tin dioxide carbon nanotubes (SnO₂@CNT) have faster Li⁺ transport rates and higher reversible capacity at LT. However, it′s important to note that when operating under LT, the electrolyte may solidify, leading to difficulty in Li⁺ transmission. The compatibility between the electrolyte and electrode can affect the formation of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) and the stability of the electrode/electrolyte system. Therefore, a good electrode/electrolyte system is crucial for successful operation of LIBs at LT.     

Modeling fracture of solid electrolyte interphase in lithium-ion batteries during cycling

Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry - In lithium-ion batteries, the volume change of anode materials will result in fracture of solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) during continuous lithiation...     

Artificial Solid Electrolyte Interphase Acting as “Armor” to Protect the Anode Materials for High-performance Lithium-ion Battery

The electrochemical performances of lithium-ion batteries(LIBs) are closely related to the interphase between the electrode materials and electrolytes. However, the development of lithium-ion batteries is hampered by the formation of uncontrollable solid electrolyte interphase(SEI) and subsequent potential safety issues associated with dendritic formation and cell short-circuits during cycling. Fabricating artificial SEI layer can be one promising approach to solve the above issues. This review summarizes the principles and methods of fabricating artificial SEI for three types of main anodes:deposition-type(e.g., Li), intercalation-type(e.g., graphite) and alloy-type(e.g., Si, Al). The review elucidates recent progress and discusses possible methods for constructing stable artificial SEIs composed of salts, polymers, oxides, and nanomaterials that simultaneously passivate anode against side reactions with electrolytes and regulate Li⁺ ions transport at interfaces. Moreover, the reaction mechanism of artificial SEIs was briefly analyzed, and the research prospect was also discussed.     

Solubilization of SEI lithium salts in alkylcarbonate solvents

The SEI (Solid Electrolyte Interphase) at the surface of electrodes in lithium-ion batteries is composed of various lithium compounds, organic or mineral, which have a direct impact on cycling performance. The main lithium species constituting the SEI and selected in this study are lithium fluoride LiF, lithium carbonate Li₂CO₃, lithium hydroxide LiOH, lithium oxide Li₂O, lithium methoxide LiOCH₃ and lithium ethoxide LiOC₂H₅. Their solubilities were determined in ethylene, propylene, dimethyl, diethyl and vinylene carbonates (EC, PC, DMC, DEC and VC) and in one of their mixtures commonly used in lithium-ion batteries (EC/PC/3DMC) by mean of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). These solutions were also investigated by EIS (Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy) and conductimetry measurements. Results show that while solubilization properties differ between LiF and other lithium compounds considered, their association pattern in solution is identical and solutions are mainly constituted of quadrupolar aggregates.     

Equilibrium lithium-ion transport between nanocrystalline lithium-inserted anatase TiO2 and the electrolyte

The power density of lithium-ion batteries requires the fast transfer of ions between the electrode and electrolyte. The achievable power density is directly related to the spontaneous equilibrium exchange of charged lithium ions across the electrolyte/electrode interface. Direct and unique characterization of this charge-transfer process is very difficult if not impossible, and consequently little is known about the solid/liquid ion transfer in lithium-ion-battery materials. Herein we report the direct observation by solid-state NMR spectroscopy of continuous lithium-ion exchange between the promising nanosized anatase TiO(2) electrode material and the electrolyte. Our results reveal that the energy barrier to charge transfer across the electrode/electrolyte interface is equal to or greater than the barrier to lithium-ion diffusion through the solid anatase matrix. The composition of the electrolyte and in turn the solid/electrolyte interface (SEI) has a significant effect on the electrolyte/electrode lithium-ion exchange; this suggests potential improvements in the power of batteries by optimizing the electrolyte composition.     

Lithium-ion conducting electrolyte salts for lithium batteries

This paper presents an overview of the various types of lithium salts used to conduct Li(+) ions in electrolyte solutions for lithium rechargeable batteries. More emphasis is paid towards lithium salts and their ionic conductivity in conventional solutions, solid-electrolyte interface (SEI) formation towards carbonaceous anodes and the effect of anions on the aluminium current collector. The physicochemical and functional parameters relevant to electrochemical properties, that is, electrochemical stabilities, are also presented. The new types of lithium salts, such as the bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB), oxalyldifluoroborate (LiODFB) and fluoroalkylphosphate (LiFAP), are described in detail with their appropriate synthesis procedures, possible decomposition mechanism for SEI formation and prospect of using them in future generation lithium-ion batteries. Finally, the state-of-the-art of the system is given and some interesting strategies for the future developments are illustrated.     

Significant Strain Dissipation via Stiff-Tough Solid Electrolyte Interphase Design for Highly Stable Alloying Anodes

The pulverization of alloying anodes significantly restricts their use in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). This study presents a dual-phase solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) design that incorporates finely dispersed Al nanoparticles within the LiPON matrix. This distinctive dual-phase structure imparts high stiffness and toughness to the integrated SEI film. In comparison to single-phase LiPON film, the optimized Al/LiPON dual-phase SEI film demonstrates a remarkable increase in fracture toughness by 317.8 %, while maintaining stiffness, achieved through the substantial dissipation of strain energy. Application of the dual-phase SEI film on an Al anode leads to a 450 % enhancement in cycling stability for lithium storage in dual-ion batteries. A similar enhancement in cycling stability for silicon anodes, which face severe volume expansion issues, is also observed, demonstrating the broad applicability of the dual-phase SEI design. Specifically, homogeneous Li−Al alloying has been observed in conventional LIBs, even when paired with a high mass loading LiNi_0.5Co_0.3Mn_0.2O₂ cathode (7 mg cm⁻²). The dual-phase SEI film design can also accelerate the diffusion kinetics of Li-ions through interface electronic structure regulation. This dual-phase design can integrate stiffness and toughness into a single SEI film, providing a pathway to enhance both the structural stability and rate capability of alloying anodes.     

锂金属负极的挑战与改善策略研究进展

锂金属由于其高比容量和低电极电势等优点被认为是下一代高比能量电池体系中最有潜力的负极材料。然而由于锂金属的高活性,锂负极在循环过程中会产生大量的枝晶,导致SEI(solid-electrolyte interphase)破裂,并且枝晶增加了电极与电解液的接触面积,使得副反应进一步增加。此外,脱落的枝晶形成死锂,从而降低电池的充放电库仑效率。并且不可控的锂枝晶持续生长会刺穿隔膜引发电池短路,伴随着电池热失控等安全问题。本综述基于锂负极存在的主要挑战,结合理解锂枝晶的成核生长模型等机理总结并深度分析近些年来在液态和固态电解质体系中改善锂金属负极的主要策略及其作用机理,为促进高比能量锂金属电池的应用提供借鉴参考作用。     

In situ Observation of Evolving H2 and Solid Electrolyte Interphase Development at Potassium Insertion Materials within Highly Concentrated Aqueous Electrolytes

The solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) is key to stable, high voltage lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) as a protective barrier that prevents electrolyte decomposition. The SEI is thought to play a similar role in highly concentrated water-in-salt electrolytes (WISEs) for emerging aqueous batteries, but its properties remain unknown. In this work, we utilized advanced scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) and operando electrochemical mass spectrometry (OEMS) techniques to gain deeper insight into the SEI that occurs within highly concentrated WISEs. As a model, we focus on a 55 mol/kg K(FSA)_0.6(OTf)_0.4 electrolyte and a 3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylic diimide negative electrode. For the first time, our work showed distinctly passivating structures with slow apparent electron transfer rates alike to the SEI found in LIBs. In situ analyses indicated stable passivating structures when PTCDI was stepped to low potentials (≈−1.3 V vs. Ag/AgCl). However, the observed SEI was discontinuous at the surface and H₂ evolution occurred as the electrode reached more extreme potentials. OEMS measurements further confirmed a shift in the evolution of detectable H₂ from −0.9 V to <−1.4 V vs. Ag/AgCl when changing from dilute to concentrated electrolytes. In all, our work shows a combined approach of traditional battery measurements with in situ analyses for improving characterization of other unknown SEI structures.     

多酚类化合物—丹宁酸用作锂金属负极电解液成膜添加剂

As the application of lithium-ion batteries in advanced consumer electronics, energy storage systems, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, and electric vehicles increases, there has emerged an urgent need for increasing the energy density of such batteries. Lithium metal anode is considered as the "Holy Grail" for high-energy-density electrochemical energy storage systems because of its low reduction potential (-3.04 V vs standard hydrogen electrode) and high theoretical specific capacity (3860 mAh·g^-1). However, the practical application of lithium metal anode in rechargeable batteries is severely limited by irregular lithium dendrite growth and high reactivity with the electrolytes, leading to poor safety performance and low coulombic efficiency. Recent research progress has been well documented to suppress dendrite growth for achieving long-term stability of lithium anode, such as building artificial protection layers, developing novel electrolyte additives, constructing solid electrolytes, using functional separator, designing composite electrode or three-dimensional lithium-hosted material. Among them, the use of electrolyte additives is regarded as one of the most effective and economical methods to improve the performance of lithium-ion batteries. As a natural polyphenol compound, tannic acid (TA) is significantly cheaper and more abundant compared with dopamine, which is widely used for the material preparation and modification in the field of lithium-ion batteries. Herein, TA is first reported as an efficient electrolyte film-forming additive for lithium metal anode. By adding 0.15% (mass fraction, wt.) TA into the base electrolyte of 1 mol·L^-1 LiPF₆-EC/DMC/EMC (1 : 1 : 1, by wt.), the symmetric Li|Li cell exhibited a more stable cyclability of 270 h than that of only 170 h observed for the Li|Li cell without TA under the same current density of 1 mA·cm^-2 and capacity of 1 mAh·cm^-2 (with a cutoff voltage of 0.1 V). Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry (CV), and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analyses demonstrated that TA participated in the formation of a dense solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer on the surface of the lithium metal. A possible reaction mechanism is proposed here, wherein the small amount of added polyphenol compound could have facilitated the formation of LiF through the hydrolysis of LiPF₆, following which the resulting phenoxide could react with dimethyl carbonate (DMC) through transesterification to form a cross-linked polymer, thereby forming a unique organic/inorganic composite SEI film that significantly improved the electrochemical performance of the lithium metal anode. These results demonstrate that TA can be used as a promising film-forming additive for the lithium metal anode.     

Mitigating Electron Leakage of Solid Electrolyte Interface for Stable Sodium-Ion Batteries

The interfacial stability is highly responsible for the longevity and safety of sodium ion batteries (SIBs). However, the continuous solid-electrolyte interphase(SEI) growth would deteriorate its stability. Essentially, the SEI growth is associated with the electron leakage behavior, yet few efforts have tried to suppress the SEI growth, from the perspective of mitigating electron leakage. Herein, we built two kinds of SEI layers with distinct growth behaviors, via the additive strategy. The SEI physicochemical features (morphology and componential information) and SEI electronic properties (LUMO level, band gap, electron work function) were investigated elaborately. Experimental and calculational analyses showed that, the SEI layer with suppressed growth delivers both the low electron driving force and the high electron insulation ability. Thus, the electron leakage is mitigated, which restrains the continuous SEI growth, and favors the interface stability with enhanced electrochemical performance.     

金属锂负极失效机制及其先进表征技术

尽管传统的石墨负极在商业化锂离子电池中取得了成功,但其理论容量低(372 mAh·g^?1)、本身不含锂的先天缺陷限制了其在下一代高比能量锂电池体系中的应用,特别是在需要锂源的锂-硫和锂-空气电池体系中。金属锂因其极高的理论比容量(3860 mAh·g^?1)和低氧化还原电势(相对于标准氢电极为?3.040 V),被认为是下一代锂电池负极材料的最佳选择之一。但是,金属锂负极存在库伦效率低、循环性能差、安全性差等一系列瓶颈问题亟待解决,而循环过程中锂枝晶的生长、巨大的体积变化、以及电极界面不稳定等是导致这些问题的关键因素。本文综述了近年来关于金属锂负极瓶颈问题及其机理,包括金属锂电极表面固态电解质界面膜的形成,锂枝晶的生长行为,以及惰性死锂的形成。同时,本文还介绍了目前用于研究金属锂负极的先进表征技术,这些技术为研究人员深入认识金属锂负极的失效机制提供了重要信息。     

Critical assessment of a new in situ spectroelectrochemical cell designed for the study of interfacial reactions between a porous graphite anode and alkyl carbonate solution

This article critically evaluates the characteristics of a new in situ spectroelectrochemical cell with an optimized path of the IR beam, designed in our laboratory for study of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer formed between a porous graphite anode and alkyl carbonate solution for lithium-ion batteries. The cell was designed in view of the optical principles underlying the way the in situ cell works, to give depth of penetration of the evanescent IR beam through the attenuated total internal reflectance crystal into the electrolyte at such a small value, ranging from 0.277 to 2.77 μm, that it was possible to minimize the "masking effect" of the ethylene carbonate/diethyl carbonate solvent. Moreover, the "local compositional change" which may arise significantly from the "thin layer electrolyte configuration" cell also could be fairly avoided, since only the electrolyte in the vicinity of the electrode composed of graphite particles is reduced to form the SEI layer to a thickness of at most 0.1 μm during the application of potentials. Thus, it was possible to measure the in situ FT-IR spectra in the cell, which represents the real chemical composition and structure of the SEI layer. Taking the application of the designed in situ cell as an example, this article reports the effect of salt type and electrolyte temperature on the chemical composition and structure of the SEI layer between graphite particles and alkyl carbonate solution with the help of various measured in situ FT-IR spectra. Electronic Publication     

Monitoring electrode/electrolyte interfaces of Li-ion batteries under working conditions: A surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopic study on LiCoO2 composite cathodes

Lithium-ion batteries are commonly used for electrical energy storage in portable devices and are promising systems for large-scale energy storage. However, their application is still limited due to electrode degradation and stability issues. To enhance the fundamental understanding of electrode degradation, we report on the Raman spectroscopic characterization of LiCoO₂ cathode materials of working Li-ion batteries. To facilitate the spectroscopic analysis of the solid electrolyte interface (SEI), we apply in situ surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy under battery working conditions by using Au nanoparticles coated with a thin SiO₂ layer (Au@SiO₂). We observe a surface-enhanced Raman signal of Li₂CO₃ at 1090 cm⁻¹ during electrochemical cycling as an intermediate. Its formation/decomposition highlights the role of Li₂CO₃ as a component of the SEI on LiCoO₂ composite cathodes. Our results demonstrate the potential of Raman spectroscopy to monitor electrode/electrolyte interfaces of lithium-ion batteries under working conditions thus allowing relations between electrochemical performance and structural changes to be established.     

原子力显微镜在锂离子电池界面研究中的应用

近几年,电动汽车市场的飞速发展对锂离子电池的能量密度和安全性提出了更高的要求. 然而,过去近30年,在应用终端市场的大力推动下,锂离子电池的电极材料、电池结构设计和生产工艺都已经发展得比较成熟,容量提升空间已经比较小,想要进一步提高现有锂离子电池的能量密度,需要对锂离子电池的整个系统和工作原理有更深刻和全面的理解. 存在于锂离子电池电极材料和电解液之间的固态电解质中间相（solid electrolyte interphase,SEI）已被证明是一个影响电池性能的重要因素,目前学术界和产业界对其认识还不是很全面,尤其是高分辨、工况下以及多技术联合的界面表征工作较少见到报道. 原子力显微镜（atomic force microscopy,AFM）通过探测针尖与样品之间的相互作用力,能够在原子尺度上原位表征液态电池界面的形貌以及力学特性,对于电极界面的理解和调控非常重要. 本文作者通过总结近几年AFM在锂离子电池SEI研究的中的应用,并结合本课题组在该领域的工作,对AFM技术在锂离子电池SEI研究中的应用做了总结和展望,对加深锂离子电池界面的理解,以及构建稳定锂电池界面的相关研究有参考意义.     

Strategic Approaches to the Dendritic Growth and Interfacial Reaction of Lithium Metal Anode

Utilization of lithium (Li) metal anode is highly desirable for achieving high energy density batteries. Even so, the unavoidable features of Li dendritic growth and inactive Li are still the main factors that hinder its practical application. During plating and stripping, the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer can provide passivation, playing an important role in preventing direct contact between the electrolyte and the electrode in Li metal batteries. Because of complexities of the electrolyte chemical and electrochemical reactions, the various formation mechanisms for the SEI are still not well understood. What we do know is that a strategic artificial SEI achieved through additives electrolyte can suppress the Li dendrites. Otherwise, the dendrites keep generating an abundance of irreversible Li, resulting in severe capacity loss, internal short-circuiting, and cell failure. In this minireview, we focus on the phenomenon of dendritic Li-growth and provide a brief overview of SEI formation. We finally provide some clear insights and perspectives toward practical application of Li metal batteries.     

Electrolyte Design for Improving Mechanical Stability of Solid Electrolyte Interphase in Lithium–Sulfur Batteries

Practical lithium–sulfur (Li−S) batteries are severely plagued by the instability of solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formed in routine ether electrolytes. Herein, an electrolyte with 1,3,5-trioxane (TO) and 1,2-dimethoxyethane (DME) as co-solvents is proposed to construct a high-mechanical-stability SEI by enriching organic components in Li−S batteries. The high-mechanical-stability SEI works compatibly in Li−S batteries. TO with high polymerization capability can preferentially decompose and form organic-rich SEI, strengthening mechanical stability of SEI, which mitigates crack and regeneration of SEI and reduces the consumption rate of active Li, Li polysulfides, and electrolytes. Meanwhile, DME ensures high specific capacity of S cathodes. Accordingly, the lifespan of Li−S batteries increases from 75 cycles in routine ether electrolyte to 216 cycles in TO-based electrolyte. Furthermore, a 417 Wh kg⁻¹ Li−S pouch cell undergoes 20 cycles. This work provides an emerging electrolyte design for practical Li−S batteries.     

计算模拟在锂金属负极研究中的应用

锂金属以其高比容量和低电极电势,在高能量密度电池领域具有极大潜力,然而界面反应复杂、枝晶生长难以抑制等问题,导致电池易燃易爆、容易击穿短路,极大地限制了锂电池的应用。计算模拟有助于科研工作者认识反应机理、预测筛选电极材料以及优化电池设计,与实验相辅相成。本文对近年计算模拟在锂金属电极中的应用进行综述,重点在于利用分子动力学、第一性原理计算等计算方法,研究界面反应、固体电解质膜以及锂形核。此外,新开发的固态电解质很好地解决了传统锂电池易燃易爆等问题,提高了能量密度,但也存在界面阻力大、传导性能差以及枝晶生长等问题,对此,我们就计算模拟在固态电解质锂电池中锂负极的应用进行综述。最后,我们论述了该领域潜在研究方向。     

Atomic force microscopy study on the stability of a surface film formed on a graphite negative electrode at elevated temperatures

The stability at elevated temperatures of a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formed on a graphite negative electrode in lithium ion batteries was investigated by storage tests and in situ atomic force microscopy (AFM) observation. When the fully discharged graphite electrode was stored at elevated temperatures, the irreversible capacity in the following cycle increased remarkably. On the other hand, when the electrode was stored at the fully charged state at elevated temperatures, it was severely self-discharged during storage. AFM observation of the SEI layer formed on a model electrode of highly oriented pyrolytic graphite revealed two important facts on the stability of the SEI at elevated temperatures: (i) dissolution and agglomeration of the SEI layer at the discharged state and (ii) serious SEI growth at the charged state. These phenomena well explain the results of the charge and discharge tests. It was also shown that the addition of vinylene carbonate greatly improves the stability of the SEI at elevated temperatures, and gives good charge and discharge performance after storage.