电催化剂纳米碳基载体的研究进展

质子交换膜燃料电池(PEMFCs)因具有工作温度低、结构紧凑、无腐蚀、启动快和灵活性好等优点,受到人们广泛关注.但其工作时动力学迟缓且易受CO毒化影响,往往需要负载Pt等贵金属催化剂,导致PEMFCs的成本高昂,阻碍了其商业化应用.为提高Pt贵金属的利用率,通常将Pt负载在载体材料上来提高Pt的分散性以减少Pt颗粒集聚...     

直接甲醇燃料电池纳米结构电催化材料及多孔电极研究

直接甲醇燃料电池(DMFC)因其燃料能量密度高,工作温度低,低污染排放等优点被认为是用作移动设备电源的最佳选择之一,至今已有美国的Oorja Protonics公司和丹麦的IRD公司等新能源相关企业相继发布了多款用于手机、电脑、通信基站、叉式装卸机或房车的商业产品.然而, DMFC内部的复杂情况造成的多种不同的电压损失仍旧使得其实际电压效率远低于理论值.其中从阳极渗透到阴极的甲醇造成的混合电位导致的电压损失尤为明显.目前,众多研究人员都致力于开发高稳定性、高耐久性、高性能且低成本的催化材料体系,以克服传统Pt催化剂存在的各种问题.除了催化剂本身之外, DMFC的问题还与其中膜电极的微结构和电化学特性息息相关.膜电极是化学能通过电催化氧化还原反应转化为电能的反应场所,通常由阳极扩散层、阳极催化层、质子交换膜、阴极催化层和阴极扩散层依序组合而成.通过对MEA中的各层进行优化,如传质管理和甲醇渗透等问题都能得到有效解决.
　　近年来,纳米技术常被用于改进DMFC性能的研究.具备纳米结构的金属-碳/金属氧化物载体类催化材料得到了广泛研究.这些电催化材料在制备方法、结构和组分上都有较大区别.结构方面,许多研究都证明制备纳米级多孔网络结构或者有序阵列结构的催化层有助于提高催化性能和Pt的利用率.组分方面,许多研究人员都开展了引入Pt以外金属成分或金属氧化物来改变Pt催化剂的表面电子状态的研究.引入这些组分导致的配位体效应可以通过弱化Pt与H+, OH-或COads等的相互作用来起到抗催化毒化和提高催化效率的作用.尽管对于DMFC领域的认知逐渐完善,但是仍有许多问题有待解决.因此,本文介绍了目前用于DMFC的纳米结构电催化材料和多孔电极的研究进展.重点介绍了纳米结构催化剂和载体材料的合成及表征.
　　通过对比不同催化材料的特性可以发现,在本文涉及到的催化材料中, In0.1SnO2-Pt和(MoO3)0.2SnO2-Pt/C表现出了最高的催化活性,但是它们高效催化甲醇电氧化所需的碱性环境与现在占绝对主流地位的Nafion质子交换膜所必须的酸性环境相冲突,所以其实际应用价值在碱性阴离子交换膜研究取得突破前都难以有效发挥.而另一类表现较好的采用溶致液晶模板法合成的纳米树枝状和纳米星形Pt催化剂则存在制备工艺难以商业规模化的问题.总的来说,采用溶剂热合成法制备的Pt-NRCeO2/GNs和Pt/Ti0.9Sn0.1O2-C等纳米结构金属氧化物、碳材料复合载体和Pt基贵金属催化剂组成的催化材料体系不仅催化性能相对于商业化Pt纳米颗粒有很大提高,而且制备方法易于商业规模化,值得进一步关注.此外,本文还介绍了如内部传质过程的理论建模计算和膜电极中功能结构的制备等优化DMFC中多孔电极内传质过程的方法.通过计算机模拟得到优化DMFC内部传质过程所需的扩散层、催化层的传质特性相关参数,再通过改进MEA制备工艺,有效控制各层的结构参数向模拟的优化值靠拢,能够实现DMFC性能的有效提升.综合模拟、实验研究及工艺研究结果,根据实际需要,设计和制备包含新功能层的MEA的相关研究也更进一步提高了DMFC的性能和实用性.就目前的研究情况而言,如果在性能提升的基础上,使用寿命再取得突破, DMFC一定会有很好的商业应用前景.     

铜基非贵金属氧还原电催化剂的研究进展

面对日益严重的全球能源危机,燃料电池作为一种清洁的能源转换装置在全世界范围内得到了广泛关注。燃料电池是一种能够使氢气、甲醇、甲酸和乙醇等小分子燃料和氧气发生氧化还原反应,并将其化学能转换为电能的新型装置。在燃料电池中,由于在阴极发生的氧气还原反应动力学速率缓慢而使得燃料电池的整体转换效率过低,目前商用的燃料电池一般采用贵金属铂作为催化剂来加速其反应。但由于铂的价格高昂且在反应过程中易被反应中间产物毒化而活性下降,使得燃料电池的整体成本过高,从而阻碍了燃料电池的实际商业化。为此,人们尝试利用非贵金属催化剂来替代铂基催化剂。找到一种廉价且高效的氧还原催化剂是目前燃料电池发展急需打破的瓶颈问题之一。近年来,人们发现铁、钴、锰等地表储量丰富的金属元素具有较高的氧还原催化活性。然而,作为一种最常见的金属元素,金属铜在氧还原催化剂方面研究较少。人们发现一些生物酶,如虫漆酶、细胞色素c氧化酶等能够高效地催化氧气还原,如虫漆酶在催化氧还原过程中仅表现出约20 mV的过电位,与金属铂(约200 mV)相比基本可忽略。通过研究这些活性生物酶,人们发现其活性中心均为含Cu的物质。进一步研究这些生物酶的活性位点,然后合成不同的铜基纳米材料去模拟酶的活性位点,以期望能够实现经济、高效催化氧还原反应。
　　本文总结了基于铜的纳米材料在催化氧还原方面的研究进展,首先介绍了一些氧还原实验测试中的基本概念,主要包括不同电解质条件下氧还原的反应机理以及常用的测试手段和性能评价指标。氧还原催化剂的性能应该综合活性、稳定性、抗毒化能力以及催化剂成本等多个方面来评价与比较。随后,我们概括性地介绍了铜基氧还原催化剂的发展现状。根据铜基催化剂的不同类型,我们主要分为三个部分进行介绍：(1)铜的复合物,这部分主要从模拟虫漆酶和模拟细胞色素c氧化酶两个方面分类介绍;(2)铜的化合物,这部分主要介绍了不同价态的铜的氧化物和铜的硫化物;(3)其它铜基催化剂,这部分主要介绍基于铜的尖晶石结构、有机框架材料及载体负载的铜纳米粒子作为氧还原催化剂,以及铜作为掺杂元素在提高锰的不同氧化物催化活性中的作用。最后,通过综合分析铜基氧还原催化剂的发展历程以及目前燃料电池的研究进展,我们对基于铜的氧还原催化剂的未来发展方向做了一些展望。继续研究、探索酶的氧还原活性位点以及机理依然是重中之重,只有完全理解了酶的催化机理,才能够很好的设计并合成材料来对其活性位点进行模拟,从而制备出高性能且低成本的铜基氧还原催化剂。希望本文能够使读者认识到燃料电池氧还原催化剂的发展现况,以及铜基氧还原催化剂目前存在的问题及其未来的发展方向。     

高分散Fe-N-C氧还原反应电催化剂及其在直接甲醇燃料电池中的应用

氧还原反应(ORR)是燃料电池和金属空气电池等洁净发电装置中阴极的主要反应,该反应动力学过程慢,电化学极化严重. Pt基电催化剂具有较好的ORR活性,然而Pt资源有限、价格昂贵,研制高活性、低成本的代Pt电催化剂意义重大.经过几十年的探索,研究者发现将含有C, N和Fe等元素的前体进行高温热处理得到的Fe-N-C电催化剂对ORR具有良好的活性,然而在高温热解过程中Fe容易发生聚集而形成大块颗粒,导致Fe的利用率不高,影响了电催化剂的ORR活性.
　　本文分别以聚吡咯和乙二胺四乙酸二钠(EDTA-2Na)为C和N的前驱体,利用高温热解形成的富含微孔的碳材料对铁前体的吸附及锚定作用,获得了一种Fe高度分散的Fe-N-C电催化剂.采用物理吸脱附技术、高分辨透射电镜(HRTEM)和扫描电镜对Fe-N-C及其制备过程中相关电催化剂的孔结构及表面形貌进行了表征.结果表明,在第一步热解过程中, EDTA-2Na的Na对碳材料起到了活化作用,形成富含微孔的N掺杂碳材料(N-C-1),其BET比表面积达到1227 m2/g,孔径约1.1 nm.在第二步热解过程中, N-C-1有效地抑制了Fe的聚集,产物Fe-N-C中的Fe元素均匀地分布在碳材料中,其比表面积高达1501 m2/g.
　　电化学测试结果表明,在碱性介质(0.1 mol/L NaOH)中, Fe-N-C电催化剂对ORR具有良好的催化活性, ORR起始电位(Eo)为1.08 V (vs. RHE),半波电位(E1/2)0.88 V,电子转移数n接近4, H2O2产率<3%,与商品20%Pt/C(Johnson Matthey)接近.电化学加速老化测试结果表明, Fe-N-C的E1/2未发生明显变化,而Pt的负移45 mV,表明Fe-N-C具有很好的稳定性;在酸性介质(0.1 mol/L HClO4)中, Fe-N-C的Eo为0.85 V, E1/2为0.75 V,其E1/2比Pt/C负移约0.15 V,表明在酸性介质中Fe-N-C对ORR的催化活性还有待提高.采用TEM、X射线衍射、X射线光电子能谱以及穆斯堡尔谱等方法研究了电催化剂构效关系.结果表明, Fe-N-C较好的ORR活性主要来自于高分散的Fe-N4结构,此外, N(吡啶N和石墨N)掺杂的C也对反应具有一定的催化活性.
　　与Pt/C相比, Fe-N-C电催化剂具有很好的耐甲醇性能.本文对比了Fe-N-C和Pt/C作为阴极催化剂的直接醇类燃料电池(DMFC)性能,采用质子交换膜的DMFC最大功率密度分别为47(Fe-N-C)和79 mW/cm2(Pt/C),而采用碱性电解质膜的则分别为33(Fe-N-C)和8 mW/cm2(Pt/C).结合半电池结果表明, Fe-N-C电催化剂在碱性介质中具有比Pt更为优秀的催化活性和稳定性,有望用作DMFC阴极代Pt催化剂.     

Recent advances in tuning redox properties of electron transfer centers in metalloenzymes catalyzing the oxygen reduction reaction and H2 oxidation important for fuel cell design

Current fuel cell catalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and H₂ oxidation use precious metals and, for ORR, require high overpotentials. In contrast, metalloenzymes perform their respective reactions at low overpotentials using earth-abundant metals, making metalloenzymes ideal candidates for inspiring electrocatalytic design. Critical to the success of these enzymes are redox-active metal centers surrounding the active site of the enzyme. These electron transfer (ET) centers not only ensure fast ET to or away from the active site, but also tune the catalytic potential of the reaction as observed in multicopper oxidases as well as playing a role in dictating the catalytic bias of the reaction as realized in hydrogenases. This review summarizes recent advances in studying these ET centers in multicopper oxidases and heme-copper oxidases that perform ORR and in hydrogenases carrying out H₂ oxidation. Insights gained from understanding how the reduction potential of the ET centers affects reactivity at the active site in both the enzymes and their models are provided.     

Sulfonated polysulfone with 1,3-1H-dibenzimidazole-benzene additive as a membrane for direct methanol fuel cells

1,3-1H-Dibenzimidazole-benzene (DBImBenzene) has been synthesized using phosphorus pentoxide-methanesulfonic acid (PPMA) as a solvent and dehydration agent and investigated as an additive (up to 2.0 wt.%) in sulfonated polysulfone (SPSf) membranes to promote proton conduction via acid–base interactions. The SPSf/DBImBenzene blend membranes with various DBImBenzene contents (0–2.0 wt.%) have been prepared and characterized by proton conductivity measurement and electrochemical polarization and methanol crossover measurements in direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs). The blend membranes with DBImBenzene content of 0.5 and 1.0 wt.% show higher proton conductivities (3.4 and 2.9 × 10⁻⁴ S/cm, respectively) than plain SPSf (2.4 × 10⁻⁴ S/cm) even though the blend membranes have lower ion exchange capacity (0.81 and 0.75 mequiv./g, respectively) than plain SPSf (0.86 mequiv./g). The blend membranes exhibit better electrochemical performance in DMFC than plain SPSf membrane due to an enhancement in proton conductivity through acid–base interactions and lower methanol crossover.     

Poly(arylene ether sulfone)s containing pendant sulfonic acid groups as membrane materials for direct methanol fuel cells

A series of poly(arylene ether sulfone)s containing pendant sulfonic acid groups have been prepared by an aromatic substitution polymerization reaction using 4,4-difluorodiphenylsulfone, 6,7-dihydroxy-2-naphthalenesulfonate, and various hydroxyl terminated monomers in the presence of potassium carbonate. The synthesized sulfonated polymers have been characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, gel permeation chromatography, ion exchange capacity, thermogravimetric analysis, and proton conductivity measurements. With a molecular weight of 50,000–59,000 g/mol and an ion exchange capacity of 1.17 meq./g, these polymers are thermally stable up to 250 °C. They are found to exhibit better performance at 65 and 80 °C in direct methanol fuel cells than Nafion 115 membrane despite lower proton conductivity due to a significantly lower methanol crossover.     

提升燃料电池铂基催化剂稳定性的原理、策略与方法

质子交换膜燃料电池(PEMFC)具有高转化效率、高功率密度以及低污染等优点,目前受到广泛关注。燃料电池的性能主要受限于阴极的氧还原反应,其成本也受限于阴极催化剂。目前人们已经设计了许多策略、开发了许多催化剂,特别是铂基合金催化剂,来加快氧还原反应的速率,提高燃料电池性能。然而,由于过渡金属的溶解以及纳米粒子的团聚等问题,氧还原催化剂以及燃料电池的长效稳定性仍然存在问题。如何设计高效、高稳定的燃料电池阴极催化剂,对于进一步推动燃料电池的应用十分关键。针对燃料电池阴极催化剂稳定性的问题,本文综述了近年来提升燃料电池铂基催化剂稳定性的原理、策略与方法,首先我们从热力学和动力学上阐述影响催化剂稳定性的原因及其调控原理。随后,我们将概述一些具有代表性的提升催化剂稳定性的策略和方法。最后,我们对未来发展方向进行了总结与展望。     

全Pd催化剂质子交换膜燃料电池

用改良的浸渍法合成了多种不同合金度的碳载PdCu纳米粒子, 考察其对氧还原和氢氧化反应的催化行为, 并择优应用到质子交换膜燃料电池(PEMFC)中. 研究发现, 阳极采用Pd₈₀Cu₂₀/C催化剂, 阴极采用Pd₉₀Cu₁₀/C催化剂组装的单电池在65℃下最大功率密度接近204 mW/cm².     

质子交换膜燃料电池阴极非贵金属M-Nx/C型氧还原催化剂研究进展

氧还原反应(ORR)是燃料电池能量转换的关键步骤,开发高性能低成本的催化剂以替代铂族贵金属是推动燃料电池商业化的重要途径。本文综述了质子交换膜燃料电池非贵金属M-N_x/C型催化剂的最新研究进展,概括了氧还原反应的基础理论,系统展示了先进表征技术对活性位点鉴定和反应机理研究的作用,总结了M-N_x/C型催化剂近年来的代表工作和活性突破,阐述了稳定性问题的根源及对应的方案策略,我们认为M-N_x/C型催化剂未来的发展方向是理性设计具高位点密度和高稳定性的催化剂。     

PtCeOx/C as a novel methanol-tolerant electrocatalyst of oxygen reduction for direct methanol fuel cells

A prominent methanol-tolerant characteristic of the PtCeO_x/C electrocatalyst was found during oxygen reduction reaction process. The carbon-supported platinum modified with cerium oxide (PtCeO_x/C) as cathode electrocatalyst for direct methanol fuel cells was prepared via a simple and effective route. The synthesized electrocatalysts were characterized by X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. It was found that the cerium oxide within PtCeO_x/C present in an amorphous form on the carbon support surface and the PtCeO_x/C possesses almost similar disordered morphological structure and slightly smaller particle size compared with the unmodified Pt/C catalyst.     

Nafion perfluorinated membranes in fuel cells

Increasing global energy requirements, localized power issues and the need for less environmental impact are now providing even more incentive to make fuel cells a reality. A number of technologies have been demonstrated to be feasible for generation of power from fuel cells over the last several years. Proton exchange membranes (PEM) have emerged as an essential factor in the technology race. DuPont has supplied Nafion^® perfluorinated membranes in fuel cells for space travel for more than 35 years and they have played an integral part in the success of recent work in portable, stationary and transportation applications. The basis for PEM fuel cell emergence and DuPont technology utilization will be discussed.     

Effect of pretreatments on the anode structure of solid oxide fuel cells

An important objective in the development of solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) is to produce thin stabilized zirconia electrolytes that are supported upon the nickel–zirconia composite anode. Although this will reduce some of the problems associated with SOFCs by permitting lower temperature operation, this design may encounter problems during start- up. The first step in a start-up involves the reduction of nickel oxide in the anode to metallic nickel and increase of three-phase boundary will be beneficial for further reaction. In this study, two pretreatment methods are investigated for their effects on the performances of SOFC. Performances of the SOFCs are influenced by the pretreatment conditions, which included exposure of the cells to dilute H₂/O₂ either under open-circuit or closed-circuit conditions before their performance studies. By carrying out the methods, the pretreatment using the closed circuit is found to attain much higher performances effectively and efficiently. Accompanying with SEM and element analysis, increase of three-phase boundary is considered to give rise to changes in the anode microstructure, leading to activation of the anode. Mechanisms of NiO in anode reducing to Ni and porous structure via different pretreatments and their effects on the anode microstructure are proposed.     

Electrochemical reduction of nitrogen to ammonia: Progress,challenges and future outlook

Ammonia is an important chemical used in the production of fertilizers. The electrochemical nitrogen reduction reaction (NRR) to synthesize ammonia has emerged to be a potential alternative approach. Here, we provide a short opinion of the current progress and challenges of nitrogen reduction reaction from the recent literature. Different types of electrocatalysts with their performances and design principles are briefly outlined. However, most of the electrocatalysts showed unsatisfactory catalytic performance for NRR because of various factors, such as the competing side reactions and the large thermodynamic energy barrier. Hence, the concept of conducting NRR should be re-evaluated. We provide our opinion on the future possible outlook on how to improve the NRR performance. Alternative external energy input should be coupled with the electrochemical reduction of nitrogen to help with the activation of nitrogen to ammonia. Some possible energy input could be the use of cold plasma and surface plasmon resonance.     

内核含Pd的Pt基核壳结构电催化剂

燃料电池汽车已被确立为我国的战略性新兴产业,目前正处于大规模商业化的前夜,铂基电催化剂作为质子交换膜燃料电池的核心材料之一,其活性、耐久性和成本制约着这一洁净能源技术的进一步发展。高性能低铂核壳电催化剂被广泛认为有望解决这一瓶颈问题,虽然国内外在这一领域的研究取得了诸多重要的进展,但是仍存在着制备过程复杂、非铂贵金属内核尺寸较大及核壳结构宏观表征困难等问题。本文介绍两种相对简单、易放大的制备方法,即一锅法和液相合成结合区域选择原子层气相沉积法,均获得了性能优良的Pd3Au@Pt/C核壳结构电催化剂,Pd3Au内核尺寸控制在约5 nm,并利用循环伏安测试和甲酸氧化反应从宏观角度研究了铂层在内核表面的覆盖情况,探索了含钯核壳结构电催化剂的新型宏观表征方法。     

Alkaline polymer electrolyte fuel cells: Principle, challenges, and recent progress

Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) have been recognized as a significant power source in future energy systems based on hydrogen. The current PEMFC technology features the employment of acidic polymer electrolytes which, albeit superior to electrolyte solutions, have intrinsically limited the catalysts to noble metals, fundamentally preventing PEMFC from widespread deployment. An effective solution to this problem is to develop fuel cells based on alkaline polymer electrolytes (APEFC), which no...     

铂合金氧还原催化剂:合成、结构和性能

质子交换膜燃料电池是一种将燃料中的化学能直接转化为电能的装置,它具有转化效率高、能量密度高、低温启动、易于操作等优点,因而被认为是最具发展前景的新能源利用方式,在电动汽车、便携电源及分散式电站有着广泛应用.但是,目前质子交换膜燃料电池技术的发展面临着巨大挑战,主要问题包括高成本、低功率密度和低寿命.众所周知,质子交换膜燃料电池中的阴极氧还原反应在酸性条件下是一个复杂的四电子过程,动力学速度缓慢,限制了电池的最终性能.目前大量使用的阴极氧还原催化剂是细小的铂或铂合金纳米颗粒负载在碳载体上,其成本占燃料电池总成本的比例最大.制约燃料电池商业化发展的另一个重要问题是电池寿命低,其中氧还原催化剂的稳定性是决定电池寿命的主要因素.在这样的研究背景下,如何降低催化剂中铂的用量、提高催化剂活性和稳定性显得尤为重要,这也是近年来国内外学者研究的热点.在铂基合金催化剂中,通常采用过渡金属元素作为掺杂元素,由于原子半径不匹配(几何效应)以及电子结构不同(电子效应),合金催化剂表现出优于纯铂催化剂的催化性能.近几年,对于铂基合金催化剂的研究已取得重大进展,以合金组成和结构研究为基础,通过精确控制原子结构、调控表面电子状态以及制备工艺,获得了各种特殊形貌的催化剂,大大提高了催化活性.本文深入综述了近年来铂基合金氧还原催化剂制备、形貌和性能,特别关注了催化剂形貌和催化活性之间的关系.值得注意的是,具有有序原子排列的铂合金催化剂不仅在半电池中表现出优异活性,在实际质子交换膜燃料电池中也显示了很好的活性和稳定性.另一方面,碳载体的形貌及微观结构也对提高催化活性和稳定性起到决定性作用,通过化学手段加强金属纳米颗粒与碳载体之间的相互作用也是提高催化剂稳定性的重要途径.尽管铂基氧还原催化剂在近几年取得了重要进展,但在实际商业化过程中还存在诸多挑战,本文在综述进展的基础上,对铂基催化剂的发展提出了展望.首先,对于氧还原反应机理仍需要深入研究,采用更加精确的理论模型模拟氧还原动力学过程,以获得影响催化活性的关键因素.其次,提高催化剂在膜电极中的催化活性和利用率.目前,氧还原催化剂在半电池测试中性能优异,但是实际燃料电池操作条件下其性能远不能达到要求,这与膜电极、催化剂层及扩散层结构相关.因此,基于不同铂基催化剂的特性,合理设计膜电极组件的结构是将催化剂进行实际应用的基础.最后,催化剂的稳定性仍需进一步提高,尽管目前大部分催化剂在实验室半电池研究中表现了很好的稳定性,但在实际燃料电池中的稳定性研究还不足,而且对催化剂在膜电极中性能衰退机理的研究也非常有限.因此,对于铂基氧还原催化剂的研发仍需要国内外科研工作者不懈的努力.     

Nafion/PTFE and zirconium phosphate modified Nafion/PTFE composite membranes for direct methanol fuel cells

We prepared Nafion/PTFE (NF) and zirconium phosphate (ZrP) hybridized Nafion/PTFE composite membranes (NF–ZrP). NF–ZrP composite membranes were prepared via two processes. One is impregnating sub-μm porous PTFE membrane directly in a Nafion/ZrOCl₂ solution (NF–Zr–d). The other is impregnating sub-μm porous PTFE membrane in a Nafion solution to prepare NF composite membrane, and then the NF membrane was impregnated in a ZrOCl₂ aqueous solution via in situ precipitation method (NF–Zr–I). The ZrOCl₂ inserted in NF composite membranes was then reacted with phosphoric acid to form ZrP and thus NF–ZrP–d and NF–ZrP–I composite membranes were obtained. The direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) performances of membrane electrode assemblies prepared from Nafion-117, NF, NF–ZrP–d, and NF–ZrP–I composite membranes were investigated. The effects of introducing sub-μm porous PTFE film and ZrP particles into Nafion membranes on the DMFC performance were investigated. The influence of ZrP hybridizing process into NF membranes (the process of preparing NF–ZrP–I is inserting ZrOCl₂ into NF membranes after Nafion is annealed and the process of preparing NF–ZrP–d is mixing ZrOCl₂ into a Nafion solution before Nafion is annealed) on the morphology of NF–ZrP composite membranes and thus on the DMFC performance was also discussed.     

Materials research and development focus areas for low cost automotive proton-exchange membrane fuel cells

Research and development of fuel cell materials often focuses on designing and discovering materials which will reduce the cost or improve the durability of an individual subcomponent. Examples of recent focus areas include non-Pt group metal catalysts, noncarbon catalyst supports, and nonfluorinated membranes. These studies rarely look at the entire system to comprehend the impact of these materials on the cost of ownership to the customer, including vehicle and fuel costs. This perspective takes a holistic look at the impact of functional materials on automotive fuel-cell systems and provides direction on which material properties will provide the greatest benefit. It also provides guidance on which material classes are the most likely to enable the achievement of systems which will result in the successful commercialization of light-duty fuel-cell vehicles.     

Characterization and performance of proton exchange membranes for direct methanol fuel cell: Blending of sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone) with charged surface modifying macromolecule

Modification of sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone) (SPEEK) membrane was attempted by blending charged surface modifying macromolecule (cSMM). The modified membrane was tested for direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) application; i.e. a SPEEK/cSMM blend membrane was compared to a SPEEK membrane and a Nafion 112 membrane for the thermal and mechanical stability, methanol permeability, and proton conductivity. Thermal and mechanical stability of the blended membrane were slightly reduced from the SPEEK membrane but still higher than the Nafion 112 membrane. The blend membrane was found to be promising for DMFC applications because of its lower methanol diffusivity (2.75 × 10⁻⁷ cm² s⁻¹) and higher proton conductivity (6.4 × 10⁻³ S cm⁻¹), than the SPEEK membrane. A plausible explanation was given for the favorable effect of cSMM blending.