Heat transfer in bubble layers at high pressures

An original experimental investigation of heat transfer with steam condensation on a surface of a horizontal cooled tube immersed in a bubbling layer was carried out. A copper test section 16 mm in diameter and 285 mm in length was placed in a bubbling column 295 mm in diameter. Experiments were made under a pressure of 0.72-3.8 MPa with volume steam content 0-0.18, steam superficial velocities 0-0.18 m/s, and liquid-wall temperature difference 38–106 K. The heat transfer process in a bubbling layer under high pressures is shown to be of considerably intensity; with moderate values of steam content heat transfer coefficients reach 10–12 kW/(m²·K). The use of the known correlations assumed for the case of air bubbling under atmospheric pressure results in systematically underestimating heat transfer by 30–80%. Data were obtained on heat transfer with film condensation of steam and natural convection of subcooled water at high temperature differences outside the range investigated earlier. Experimental data table is appended.     

A pulse-expansion wave tube for nucleation studies at high pressures

 The design and performance of a new pulse-expansion wave tube for nucleation studies at high pressures are described. The pulse-expansion wave tube is a special shock tube in which a nucleation pulse is formed at the endwall of the high pressure section. The nucleation pulse is due to reflections of the initial shock wave at a local widening situated in the low pressure section at a short distance from the diaphragm. The nucleation pulse has a duration of the order of 200 μs, while nucleation pressures that can be achieved range from 1 to 50 bar total pressure. Droplet size and droplet number density can accurately be determined by a 90°-Mie light scattering method and a light extinction method. The range of nucleation rates that can be measured is 10⁸ cm^-3 s^-1<J<10¹¹ cm^-3 s^-1. We will illustrate the functioning and possibilities of the new pulse-expansion wave tube by nucleation rate measurements in the gas-vapour mixture nitrogen/water in the temperature range 200–260 K, and in the mixture methane/n-nonane as a function of supersaturation S at various total pressures up to 40 bar and temperatures around 240 K. Received: 5 June 1996/Accepted: 9 December 1996     

高压下PBX-1炸药的燃速-压力特性

炸药燃速-压力特性是弹药安全性的关键内因,反映了炸药反应烈度增长的倾向性。为了认识PBX-1炸药在未损伤状态下的燃烧特性,发展了密闭空腔燃烧压力-炸药耗量法以及炸药燃烧速率测试方法,并对PBX-1炸药开展了燃烧实验。采用压力传感器测量了密闭燃烧器内部的压力历程,采用快速响应热电偶监测了炸药燃烧阵面时间-位置数据,获得了炸药燃烧速率并拟合出常温下PBX-1炸药热传导燃烧速率与压力的依赖关系r=(2.16±0.55)p^1.08±0.06。结果表明,PBX-1炸药的压力指数大于1,燃烧速率对压力变化比较敏感,在100 MPa压力范围内燃烧速率呈指数关系,当压力超过100 MPa后燃烧变得不稳定,燃烧速率迅速增加,导致燃烧器内压力骤变。分析其主要原因是,高压下PBX-1炸药发生物理破坏,炸药燃烧比表面积增加100多倍,炸药反应烈度有经对流燃烧机制提升的趋势。     

Molecular weight distribution from rheological measurements

Summary A simple and reliable relative method to derive the molecular weight distribution of linear polymers is proposed.It is shown that both the zero-shear viscosity, ₀, and the intrinsic viscosity, [], have a logarithmic dependence on the weight average molecular weight, , and the polydispersity, . The coefficients of these relationships can be determined by applying a multiple regression analysis to a series of samples for which andQ are known.By making use of the two established relationships, the determination of andQ for a given polymer sample reduces to the experimental measurement of its ₀ and [].An analysis has been performed to estimate to what extent experimental errors on ₀ and [] affect the calculated molecular weight distribution.It has been found that only the experimental error on [] contributes heavily to the final error on the polydispersity.

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Zusammenfassung Es wird eine einfache und zuverlässige Relativmethode vorgeschlagen, um die Uneinheitlichkeit linearer Polymere abzuleiten.Es wird gezeigt, daß alle beide, Nullschergradient-viskosität ₀, und Grenzviskositätszahl [], einfach logarithmisch vom Gewichtsmittel des Molekulargewichts , und vom Polymolekularitätsindex , abhängig sind.Die Koeffizienten dieser Beziehungen können mit statistischer Analyse festgesetzt werden, wenn undQ einer Probenreihe bekannt sind.Mit den zwei vorher festgesetzten Beziehungen besteht die Bestimmung von undQ einer gegebenen Polymersprobe nur aus den experimentellen Massen seiner ₀- und []-Werte.Eine Analyse wurde ausgeführt, um die Bedeutung des experimentellen Irrtums über die berechnete Uneinheitlichkeit zu wissen.Es wurde gefunden, daß ein experimenteller Irrtum betreffs [] schwer an endlichem Irrtum der Uneinheitlichkeit teilnimmt.

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With 2 figures and 2 tables     

Soot surface temperature measurements in pure and diluted flames at atmospheric and elevated pressures

Soot surface temperature was measured in laminar jet diffusion flames at atmospheric and elevated pressures. The soot surface temperature was measured in flames at one, two, four, and eight atmospheres with both pure and diluted (using helium, argon, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide individually) ethylene fuels with a calibrated two-color soot pyrometry technique. These two dimensional temperature profiles of the soot aid in the analysis and understanding of soot production, leading to possible methods for reducing soot emission. Each flame investigated was at its smoke point, i.e., at the fuel flow rate where the overall soot production and oxidation rates are equal. The smoke point was chosen because it was desirable to have similar soot loadings for each flame. A second set of measurements were also taken where the fuel flow rate was held constant to compare with earlier work. These measurements show that overall flame temperature decreases with increasing pressure, with increasing pressure the position of peak temperature shifts to the tip of the flame, and the temperatures measured were approximately 10% lower than those calculated assuming equilibrium and neglecting radiation.     

The characteristics of gas/liquid flow in large risers at high pressures

Although most of the work reported on two-phase flows are limited to small pipe diameters, two-phase flow in large risers are increasingly being encountered in the petroleum and nuclear industries. In the present work, a wire mesh sensor was employed to obtain void fraction and bubble size distribution data and visualizations of steam/water flow in a large vertical pipe (194 mm in diameter) at 46 bar. For comparison purposes, measurements were made at similar phase velocities and physical properties to a dataset for nitrogen/naphtha flow in a similar-sized riser. There exist significant differences between both sets of data. Churn-turbulent flow is observed in the present work instead of slug flow, and this differs from the intermittent and semi-annular flow patterns reported for nitrogen/naphtha data. The mean void fraction of the nitrogen/naphtha data is higher than that of the present steam/water data due to the differences in purity in the liquid phases. Furthermore, core peak distributions are observed for the present work in contrast to the flatter profiles deduced for the nitrogen/naphtha using a power law relationship.     

Strength and elasticity of iron and copper at high shock-wave compression pressures

The elastic and strength parameters of iron and copper were determined experimentally at high shock-wave compression pressures of 1–2 Mbar. The attenuation of shock waves created by the impact of thin plates in blocks of the investigated materials was recorded in the experiments. The Poisson ratios, bulk moduli, shear moduli, and yield strength Y for iron at 1.11 and 1.85 Mbar and for copper at 1.22 Mbar were determined from the experimentally observed amplitudes and velocites of the unloading shock waves. The shape of the curve of the change of the yield strength of copper with an increase of pressures to states of shock-wave compression causing melting was determined on the basis of the results obtained and data of other investigators. The curve has a maximum at P 800 kbar corresponding to Y =280 kg/mm². The yield strengths for iron are located on the ascending branch of the curve Y(P) and are numerically equal to 110 kg/mm² at 1.11 Mbar and 270 kg/mm² at 1.85 Mbar. The measured values of Y exceed the yield strengths of uncompressed metals by a factor of 5–7. The authors also recorded a substantial increase of Poisson's ratios with increase of pressures in the investigated metals.Deceased.Translated from Zhurnal Prikladnoi Mekhaniki i Tekhnicheskoi Fiziki, No. 6, pp. 159–166, November–December, 1971.     

Dynamic measurements of initiation toughness at high loading rates

An experimental method is described for measuring the dynamic initiation toughness of a sharp stationary crack. A plane specimen is utilized which consists of a central region 50-mm wide and 200-mm long with integral dog-bone ends. The loading is accomplished by the detonation of four small explosive charges which produce two tensile stress waves upon reflection from the dog-bone ends. The stress waves meet at the midpoint of the specimen and reinforce to produce a relatively large, uniformly stressed region with a very high loading rate. The crack is positioned at the midpoint of the specimen at the location where the reinforcing tensile stress waves meet. A series of photoelastic experiments were conducted using Homalite 100 as the model material to observe, in a full-field view, the arrival of the dilatational waves, the subsequent development of the stress field at the tip of the stationary crack and the initiation of the crack. The isochromatic fringe pattern was also used to determine the instantaneous value of the stress-intensity factorK(t) after the characteristic fringe loops developed in the region near the crack tip. Finally,K(t) was measured using a single strain gage positioned and oriented so that its signal output was proportional toK(t) and independent of the next two higher order terms in the series representation of the strain field. A method was developed to determine the instant of initiation from the strain-time trace. Results obtained from the photoelastic and strain measurements of the dynamic-initiation toughnessK _ID were consistently higher than the static value ofK _IC . Paper was presented at the 1987 SEM Fall Conference on Experimental Mechanics held in Savannah, GA on October 25–28.     

Numerical investigation of the boiling crisis for helical cruciform-shaped rods at high pressures

The limiting factor in heat removal in engineering systems involving liquid heat transfer is the boiling crisis. The boiling crisis is especially important in the field of nuclear engineering, as it is one of the main limits on the power extracted per unit volume for both Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR) and Boiling Water Reactors (BWR). The Helical Cruciform Fuel (HCF) bundle has been proposed to increase the power density in PWRs and BWRs through enhancement of the heat transfer area-to-volume ratio and mixing of the flow compared to the traditional cylindrical fuel rod bundle geometries. In order to explore the HCF improved performance limits, computational multiphase flow dynamics is pursued here, as the experimental testing of the conditions of interest in BWR and PWR is costly. The boiling crisis at low qualities is characterized by Departure from Nucleate Boiling (DNB) and at high qualities is understood to be the result of liquid film dryout. The two-phase Eulerian approach was used to develop a robust baseline framework for prediction of DNB under high pressures that predicts the trends in boiling crisis for engineering scale systems. Such numerical technique agreed with the trends observed in the collected experimental data related to HCF type geometry.     

Effects of crystal plasticity on materials loaded at high pressures and strain rates

A crystal plasticity model is used to examine the effects of grain microstructure on the local deformation of metals subjected to high pressure and high strain rate loading characteristic of ballistic impact, explosive loading and laser ablation. The crystal elastic moduli are pressure dependent to capture the large volume strains properly and to enable evolution of shocks from steep pressure gradients. Results are obtained for a normal incidence pressure wave and a pressure wave traveling parallel to the metal surface. The results show that regions of nonuniform strain, characterized by patchy bands, can develop in the wake of the pressure wave. The magnitude and extent of the bands depends on the grain structure and the width of the zone over which the pressure rises. A steep pressure gradient produces a small process zone and leaves little chance for strain redistribution.     

Drag measurements on planar riblet surfaces at high subsonic speeds

This paper presents the results of an investigation of riblet performance at high subsonic Mach numbers, and Reynolds numbers of about 20 000 based on the momentum thickness, in both zero and adverse pressure gradient boundary layers. The maximum length Reynolds number of the ribbed section was 3.4×10⁷ so the results were directly relevant to flight applications on the engine nacelles of civil airliners. Seven different sizes of riblets with heights h (equal to spacing s) ranging from 0.0007 (0.0178mm) to 0.006 (0.1524 mm) have been studied, covering a range of h+, s+ from 10 to 106. The maximum percentage skin friction reduction, as deduced from velocity profiles measured at the downstream end of the riblet surfaces, under nominally zero pressure gradient conditions was 5.5±1; rather less than that recorded in low speed studies, but consistent with a recent theoretical analysis of the effect of Reynolds number. The values of h+ required for maximum and zero skin friction reduction agreed closely with other data. In addition subsequent floating element drag balance measurements revealed little effect of yaw angles up to 15°, again in line with other findings, and also suggested that the extent of the initial development length on, and recovery length behind, the riblets was approximately 5. The adverse pressure gradient studies indicated that riblet performance was essentially unaffected by mild gradients (=0.25), but diminished to zero in a more severe gradient (=0.5).     

Local mass transfer measurements in an inclined enclosure at high Rayleigh number

An electrochemical technique is used to study local mass transfer coefficients on surfaces of inclined enclosures over the range 1.1×10⁴ < Ra_H < 1.4×10¹⁰ for a nominal Schmidt number of 2280. Scaling with gcos instead of g in the Rayleigh number correlates the data well at low angles of inclination; however, as either the aspect ratio or the angle of inclination increase, the longitudinal density stratification causes the data to deviate from a power law scaling.

On-line measurements of the rheological properties of fermentation broth

The paper is concerned with measurements of rheological properties of fermentation broth. An on-line rheometer, Rheohelix-1, based on the application of a helical screw impeller rotating in a draught tube has been constructed. The instrument was used for measurements of the rheological parameters of fermentation broth of Aspergillus niger in a submerged fermentation process. The results of rheological and some standard measurements have been compared and proved the applicability of the instrument.Presented at the Golden Jubilee Conference of the British Society of Rheology and Third European Rheology Conference, Edinburgh, 3–7 September, 1990.     

The effect of instrument compliance on dynamic rheological measurements

The effect of instrument compliance on ERD and forced oscillation experiments is examined. A relationship for the determination of correct experimental conditions in ERD measurements is presented. It is concluded that the applicability of shear compliance corrections is doubtful whenever their magnitude is over 50% of the measured quantity and |G ^*| > 5 × 10⁵ Pa. Compressive compliance is found to have a negligible effect in all practical cases. Torsional compliance can be important in oscillatory experiments when sample torsional stiffness is high relative to instrument stiffness. Numerical values for Rheometrics equipment are used throughout the discussion.     

Flow birefringence and rheological measurements on shear induced micellar structures

Aqueous solutions of cationic surfactant systems with strongly binding counterions show the striking phenomenon of shear induced phase transitions. At low shear rates or angular frequencies, the solutions exhibit Newtonian flow. At high rates of shear, however, the rheological properties change dramatically. Above a well defined threshold value of the velocity gradient, a supermolecular structure can be formed from micellar aggregates. This shear induced structure (SIS) behaves like a gel and exhibits strong flow birefringence. The formation of the shear induced structure is very complicated and depends on the specific conditions of the surfactant system. In this paper we discuss new results which have been obtained from rheological measurements and from flow birefringence data. We examine the stability of the shear induced state as a function of temperature, surfactant concentration and salt concentration and we analyse the effect of solubilisation of alcohols and hydrocarbons. The results are interpreted in terms of a kinetic model which accounts for the observed behavior.Dedicated to the 60. birthday of Prof. H. Harnisch, Hoechst AGPartly presented at the 2nd Conference of European Rheologists, Prague, June 17–20, 1986     

Determination of molar mass polydispersity index from dynamic rheological measurements

The polydispersity of the molar mass of a material influences the behaviour of its dynamic rheological propertiesG () andG (). This is exemplified by the deviation from unity of the indexI = [2 – (d logG/d log)]/[1 – (d logG/d log)] in the terminal zone, i.e. at low frequencies. For a normal logarithmic distribution of species, a quantitative correlation may be established between the rheological properties and the parameter that is characteristic of the polydispersity for these species. This correlation can, in certain cases, be drawn from measurements in just the terminal zone or it may require measurements both in the terminal zone and at the beginning of the plateau zone. In each case, the parameter of dispersion can be determined by simple graphical or numerical methods. Finally, an example of the application of these methods to entangled liquid polymers is presented.