From Scientists to Teachers: The Role of Student Epistemology in Lesson Plans of Career Switchers

Professional scientists who pursue a teaching credential bring a great deal of background to students in a classroom, but they may have barriers to the ways they portray the field of science. This study used a multiple‐case replication design to determine the role of epistemology in lesson plans of seven scientists becoming teachers. Data sources for this study included: (a) written assignment addressing student scientific epistemology at the beginning of the course, (b) fully‐developed written lesson plans for a one‐month period, and (c) interviews with participants three months after the course was completed. Two major types of instructional designers, schema‐centered teachers and activity‐centered teachers, emerged from the data. The schema‐centered teachers believed teaching to be a process of developing ideas and approached lesson planning initially from a general perspective and worked to a more specific orientation. The activity centered teachers expressed the need to show students how to think about science rather than allowing students to construct their own conception, and viewed teaching knowledge about the scientific enterprise as an activity to be undertaken only at the beginning of the year.     

Confronting and Changing Middle School Teachers' Perceptions of Scientific Methodology

The reform documents of the 1990s stressed that science is not practiced by a rigid scientific method, but science texts continue to describe the process as if it were rigid and linear. The purpose of this investigation was twofold: (a) to explore middle school in‐service teachers' perceptions of scientific methodology and (b) to explore ways in which their perceptions change as they engage in reflective activities. Thirty‐two masters‐level students participated in an 8‐week summer course, entitled Concepts and Issues in Middle School Science. One ongoing assignment woven throughout the term involved a series of activities designed to help students reflect on their own understanding of science and the scientific enterprise. Data from the initial activity suggested that all students began the course believing that science is done in a simplistic, linear way, as depicted by many textbooks in the review of the scientific methods. However. by the end of the course, many students held a less rigid and more realistic view of the scientific enterprise. This research documents change in teachers' views over time and discusses the implications for science teacher education.     

Investigating Essential Characteristics of Scientific Practices in Elementary Science Learning Environments: The Practices of Science Observation Protocol (P‐SOP)

Within the field of science education, there remains little agreement as to the definition and characteristics of classroom inquiry. The emerging emphasis on scientific practices in science education reform discourse is underpinned by a need to better articulate the constituent elements of inquiry‐based science. While a small number of observation‐based instruments have been developed to characterize science learning environments, few are explicitly aligned with theoretical constructs articulated by the National Research Council and/or have been substantially field‐tested. We employ a newly developed instrument, the Practices of Science Observation Protocol (P‐SOP), to investigate essential features of inquiry and scientific practices in which early learners engage in elementary classrooms. This research is part of a multiyear professional development program designed to support elementary teachers (K‐5) in a large, urban school district to learn to better engage students in scientific practices. Project teachers video‐recorded enacted science lessons (n = 124) which were used as data. Findings illustrate both essential features of inquiry and scientific practices observed in elementary classrooms, as well as establish the P‐SOP as a valid and reliable observation protocol. These findings have important implications for the design of elementary science learning environments and associated research and development efforts in the field.     

Are ‘misconceptions’ or alternative frameworks of force and motion spontaneous or formed prior to instruction?

It has often been assumed that misconceptions of force and motion are part of an alternative framework and that conceptual change takes place when that framework is challenged and replaced with the Newtonian framework. There have also been variations of this theme, such as this structure is not coherent and conceptual change does not involve the replacement of concepts, conceptions or ideas but consists of the development of scientific ideas that can exist alongside ideas of the everyday. This article argues that misconceptions (or preconceptions, intuitive ideas, synthetic models, p-prims etc.) may not be formed until the learner considers force and motion within the learning situation and reports on a classroom observation (that is replicated with similar results) that suggest misconceptions arise, not because of prior experience, but spontaneously in the attempt at making sense of the terms of the discourse. The implications are that misconceptions may not be preformed, that research ought to consider the possible spontaneity in the students’ reasoning and then, if possible, attempt to discern any preformed elements or antecedents, and that we ought to reconsider what is meant by ‘conceptual change’. The classroom observation also suggests gravity as a particular stumbling-block for students. The implications for further research are discussed.     

Teaching Multiple Modes of Representation in Middle‐School Science Classrooms: Impact on Student Learning and Multimodal Use

This quasi‐experimental study investigated how explicit instruction about multiple modes of representation (MMR) impacted grades 7 (n = 61) and 8 (n = 141) students’ learning and multimodal use on end‐of‐unit assessments. Half of each teacher's (n = 3) students received an intervention consisting of explicit instruction on MMR in science discourse, in addition to regular science instruction enhanced by a focus on MMR; comparison groups of students received regular science instruction. Three ordinary least squares regression models used student demographic variables and whether or not students received the intervention to predict students’ (a) gain scores on end‐of‐unit tests, (b) voluntary use of embedded MMR on unit tests, and (c) retention of science knowledge as measured by a state end‐of‐level criterion‐referenced assessment. Analyses showed that explicit instruction on MMR did not make a significant impact on student gain scores, the amount of embeddedness on unit tests, or end‐of‐level scores. However, Models 2 and 3 showed Hispanics and females used MMR more on end‐of‐unit tests than Whites or males, respectively, whether or not they received the intervention. Hispanics and females scored lower than Whites or males, respectively, on end‐of‐level, multiple‐choice assessments. Implications for classroom teachers and educational researchers in relation to these underserved populations are discussed.     

Classroom Interactions Around Problem Contexts and Task Authenticity in Middle School Mathematics

It has been theorized that contextual tasks support student engagement and sense making. Yet, contradictory ideas exist about the role of these tasks in lessons, and further research is needed to explore how classroom interactions can help achieve their intended purposes. Through video observation of lessons in three eighth-grade classrooms using a problem-based curriculum, I investigated how teachers and students interact around problem contexts in written tasks. I found that they discussed contexts in multiple ways, falling into five general categories: referencing, positioning, elaborating, clarifying, and meta-level commentary. Using this framework, I considered how interactions around contexts related to the authenticity of tasks as written and enacted (Palm, 2006). In several lessons, these interactions led to higher authenticity as enacted than as written. These results offer a framework for interpreting context-related classroom interactions and suggest implications for instruction and research on the role contexts might play in mathematics lessons.     

Science Conference Presenters’ Images of Inquiry

Inquiry‐focused professional development and conceptions of inquiry held by eight professional development leaders were investigated within the context of a state science teacher conference. The prominent session format involved session leaders modeling classroom experiences. In all sessions, classroom inquiry was portrayed as a teacher‐guided activity with the primary goal being to increase motivation for engaging students in classroom inquiry. The leaders’ conceptualized inquiry primarily as a teaching approach with various goals, characteristics, and potential barriers. The findings of this study provide evidence of how inquiry, a prominent feature of science education reform, was portrayed in sessions at a conference sponsored by a state affiliate of the National Science Teachers Association and thought about by persons who led these sessions. The findings have implications for teacher learning from conference‐based professional development and its potential influence on science teacher thinking and practice.     

Characterizing Teachers' Verbal Scaffolds to Guide Elementary Students' Creation of Scientific Explanations

Scaffolding is a complicated construct that can take many forms, including both written and verbal forms. This research study focused on three elementary science classrooms where students were using a series of written scaffolds to guide explanation building. In each classroom, data were collected to document and study an additional type of scaffold, verbal scaffolds that the teachers provided to complement the written scaffolds. Findings suggested that some types of verbal scaffolds, such as navigational guidance, were universal and therefore cut across all three grade levels. On balance, other verbal scaffolds were more common with younger students in association with their first explanation‐building science unit, such as a verbal scaffold that turned an open‐ended question into a few multiple‐choice options. Through the characterization of the types and range of verbal scaffolds that teachers say, both in general and in response to audience, we can gain insights to inform both curricular design and professional development toward supported explanation building across target audience, time, and topic.     

Investigating written expressions of mathematical reasoning for students with learning disabilities

Assessment results from two open-construction response mathematical tasks involving fractions and decimals were used to investigate written expression of mathematical reasoning for students with learning disabilities. The solutions and written responses of 51 students with learning disabilities in fourth and fifth grade were analyzed on four primary dimensions: (a) accuracy, (b) five elements of mathematical reasoning, (c) five elements of mathematical writing, and (d) vocabulary use. Results indicate most students were not accurate in their problem solution and communicated minimal mathematical reasoning in their written expression. In addition, students tended to use general vocabulary rather than academic precise math vocabulary and students who provided a visual representation were more likely to answer accurately. To further clarify the students struggles with mathematical reasoning, error analysis indicated a variety of error patterns existed and tended to vary widely by problem type. Our findings call for more instruction and intervention focused on supporting students mathematical reasoning through written expression. Implications for research and practice are presented.     

The Effectiveness of Schoolyards as Sites for Elementary Science Instruction

This study compared the impacts of traditional classroom and outdoor schoolyard instruction on the environmental science content knowledge and attitudes of 285 third‐ and fourth‐grade students. A modified Solomon Four Group design, including control, classroom treatment, and schoolyard treatment groups, was used. Both the indoor classroom and outdoor schoolyard treatments consisted of corresponding 10‐day units focusing on plant and animal ecology. Valid and reliable content knowledge and attitude assessments were administered before and after instruction. Analyses of variance and post hoc analyses of posttest scores and gain scores indicated that elementary students learned significantly more about selected environmental science topics through outdoor schoolyard experiences than through traditional indoor classroom experiences. Both classroom and schoolyard treatment groups developed more positive environmental attitudes as a result of instruction, but the attitude posttest and gain scores of these two groups were not significantly different from each other.     

Second graders articulating ideas about linear functional relationships

In this paper, we explore the ideas that second grade students articulate about functional relationships. We adopt a function-based approach to introduce elementary school children to algebraic content. We present results from a design-based research study carried out with 21 second-grade students (approximately 7 years of age). We focus on a lesson from our classroom teaching experiment in which the students were working on a problem that involved a linear functional relationship (y = 2x). From the analysis of students’ written work and classroom video, we illustrate two different approaches that students adopt to express the relationship between two quantities. Students show fluency recontextualizing the problem posed, moving between extra-mathematical and intra-mathematical contexts.     

Pulling Back the Curtain: Uncovering and Changing Students' Perceptions of Scientists

Although there have been numerous scientists‐in‐the‐classroom initiatives in recent years, there is little research that documents whether or not these initiatives make an impact on students. This study examined 27 seventh‐grade and 27 tenth‐grade students' perceptions of scientists before and after a weeklong educational experience on nanotechnology, where students interacted with scientists. The data from this project included student interviews (pre and post intervention), field notes, student stories, and follow‐up interviews conducted 1 year after the project. Results showed that fewer than 10% of participants reported ever interacting with scientists in school settings prior to this project, despite attending schools in areas surrounded by a high density of scientists. Students' perceptions of scientists changed as a result of the project. The implications for science instruction are discussed.     

“He was poking holes …” A case study on figuring out metadiscursive rules through primary sources

An important aspect of participation in a new academic discourse pertains to the metadiscursive rules which govern that discourse. Researchers have documented the viability of using primary sources in undergraduate mathematics education for scaffolding students’ recognition of those rules. Our research explores the related question of whether the use of primary sources can support students’ learning of metadiscursive rules in a way that goes beyond mere recognition. We present a case study of one student’s “figuring out” of metadiscursive rules in a university Analysis course as a result of her experience with a Primary Source Project, illustrate evidence for three dimensions of “figuring out” (adoption, acceptance, awareness) that emerged from that case study, and discuss the implications of our findings for classroom instruction and future research.     

Engaging students in roles of proof

de Villiers (1990) suggested five roles of proof important in the professional mathematics community that may also serve to meaningfully engage students in learning proof: verification, explanation, systematization, discovery, and communication. We investigate written reflections on an end-of-semester assignment from undergraduates in an inquiry-based transition to proof course, where students reflected on instances during the semester when they engaged in the five roles of proof. We present the types of activities students recalled as influential to their engagement in the roles of proof (presenting, discussing, conjecturing, working on problem sets, and critiquing) and describe how students perceived these activities as influential to their engagement in the roles of proof. We provide student quotations highlighting these activities and offer implications for both research and practice.     

Investigating Elementary Teachers' Conceptions of Animal Classification

Numerous studies have been conducted regarding alternative conceptions about animal diversity and classification, many of which have used a cross‐age approach to investigate how students' conceptions change over time. None of these studies, however, have investigated teachers' conceptions of animal classification. This study was intended to augment the findings of past research by exploring the conceptions that elementary teachers possess about animal classification. Using interviews and written items, we documented teachers' conceptions about animal classification and compared them with student conceptions identified in previous research studies. Many of the teachers' conceptions observed in this study were similar to students' conceptions in that they were often too limited or too general compared with scientifically accepted conceptions. Also, the teachers in this study frequently used “non‐defining” characteristics, such as locomotion and habitat, to classify animals. As a result, several misclassifications were observed in the teachers' responses to the written items. Notably, the results of our study demonstrate that teachers often have the same alternative conceptions about animal classification as students. We explore some possible explanations for these alternative conceptions and discuss the instructional implications of the findings.     

Researching the enacted mathematics curriculum: learning from various perspectives on enactment

This issue of ZDM focuses on research related to the enacted curriculum from various perspectives within the context of the US educational system. In this editorial, we describe the broad view of curriculum enactment taken in this issue, highlighting that we mean more than just how instruction plays out within a classroom. For instance, enactment can occur at a national level as educational goals are enacted into a set of national objectives or standards. Enactment can occur as goals or standards are embedded into written curriculum materials or textbooks, both in terms of teacher guides and materials for students. Enactment can occur as teachers make decisions about how to use their written curriculum materials. Finally, enactment can occur as teachers and students engage and interact with written materials during classroom instruction. We elaborate briefly on these views and then outline the structure of this ZDM issue.     

Contrasting Orientations: STSE for Social Reconstruction or Social Reproduction?

Over the last 20 years, science‐technology‐society‐environment education (STSE) education has been advocated as a way to advance scientific literacy. However, STSE education represents a broad range of ideologies and orientations. The purpose of this study was to compare and contrast two different science curricula through a case study approach. This study followed three classroom teachers from Ontario who decided to write a locally developed STSE course to replace the one that the government had discontinued. Through an analysis of the current government mandated STSE curricula and the proposed STSE curriculum, two distinct orientations emerged: social reconstruction and social reproduction. The analysis work suggests that these two orientations have fundamental philosophical differences and are irreconcilable. The paper concludes with a discussion about the implications for science educators.     

Analyzing the word-problem performance and strategies of students experiencing mathematics difficulty

The purpose of this study was to examine the word-problem performance and strategies utilized by 3rd-grade students experiencing mathematics difficulty (MD). We assessed the efficacy of a word-problem intervention and compared the word-problem performance of students with MD who received intervention (n = 51) to students with MD who received general education classroom word-problem instruction (n = 60). Intervention occurred for 16 weeks, 3 times per week, 30 min per session and focused on helping students understand the schemas of word problems. Results demonstrated that students with MD who received the word-problem intervention outperformed students with MD who received general education classroom word-problem instruction. We also analyzed the word-problem strategies of 30 randomly-selected students from the study to understand how students set up and solve word problems. Students who received intervention demonstrated more sophisticated word-problem strategies than students who only received general education classroom word-problem instruction. Findings suggest students with MD benefit from use of meta-cognitive strategies and explicit schema instruction to solve word problems.