Determination of water in furfural by infrared spectroscopy

The IR absorption band at 5250 cm^–1 is used to determine 0–5% water in furfural. The accuracy of the determination is not less than 5%. The method is suitable for any kind of furfural. The analytical results are unaffected by the presence of formic, acetic, and pyromucic acids, and methanol and ethanol.     

ATR and transmission analysis of pigments by means of far infrared spectroscopy

In the field of FTIR spectroscopy, the far infrared (FIR) spectral region has been so far less investigated than the mid-infrared (MIR), even though it presents great advantages in the characterization of those inorganic compounds, which are inactive in the MIR, such as some art pigments, corrosion products, etc. Furthermore, FIR spectroscopy is complementary to Raman spectroscopy if the fluorescence effects caused by the latter analytical technique are considered. In this paper, ATR in the FIR region is proposed as an alternative method to transmission for the analyses of pigments. This methodology was selected in order to reduce the sample amount needed for analysis, which is a must when examining cultural heritage materials. A selection of pigments have been analyzed in both ATR and transmission mode, and the resulting spectra were compared with each other. To better perform this comparison, an evaluation of the possible effect induced by the thermal treatment needed for the preparation of the polyethylene pellets on the transmission spectra of the samples has been carried out. Therefore, pigments have been analyzed in ATR mode before and after heating them at the same temperature employed for the polyethylene pellet preparation. The results showed that while the heating treatment causes only small changes in the intensity of some bands, the ATR spectra were characterized by differences in both intensity and band shifts towards lower frequencies if compared with those recorded in transmission mode. All pigments' transmission and ATR spectra are presented and discussed, and the ATR method was validated on a real case study. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Far infrared spectrum and conformational potential function of n-butane

The far i.r. spectrum of gaseous n-butane obtained at 0.06 cm⁻¹ resolution is reported between 80 and 230 cm⁻¹. Several transitions for the asymmetric torsion of the trans conformer have been identified. Utilizing these data along with the previously reported asymmetric torsional transitions of the gauche conformer from Raman spectroscopic data, the potential function for the conformational change has been obtained. The determined potential parameters were found to be: V₁ = 181, V₂ = 148, V₃ = 1154 and V₆ = −33 cm⁻¹. The s-trans to gauche, gauche to gauche, and gauche to s-trans barriers in cm⁻¹ were found to be: 1315 (3.76 kcal/mol), 1090 (3.12 kcal/mol) and 1070 (3.06 kcal/mol), respectively. The potential functions obtained from these spectroscopic data are consistent with the trans to gauche energy difference, but not with the high trans/cis potential barrier suggested by recent ab initio calculations.     

Conformational studies by far infrared and Raman spectra of gases

One of the major goals of conformational analysis is the calculation of the energy difference between two or more conformers, ΔE, as well as the energy necessary for interconversion. The calculation of these energy quantities is facilitated by using a potential function which describes the vibrational motion, or internal rotation (torsion), as a function of the dihedral angle, α. The potential function is called asymmetric because both the frame and top portions of the molecule have no symmetry element higher than a plane. The most common type of potential function where at least one of the minima coincides with the plane of symmetry is of the type: V(α) = $\text{1}\text{2}$ΣV_i(1 - cos iα). The kinetic energy term, F(α), is extremely complicated. In general, if the only data being used to calculate the potential function are torsional transitions, and if one continues within the boundary conditions of a one-dimensional problem, then a cosine expansion of F(α) should be adequate: F(α) = F₀ + ΣF_i cos iα. For those systems where there is an equilibrium between a planar form and two non-planar forms, V₃ is usually the predominant term. This is because V₃ represents a three maxima/three minima potential per 2π (360°) internal rotation. In a similar fashion, V₂ is found to be the predominant term in the potential function for a system consisting of two equivalent non-planar conformers. Several examples of our most recent studies are given where the potential function for interconversion of two conformers has been determined.     

Comparative analysis of smokeless gunpowders by Fourier transform infrared and Raman spectroscopy

Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopic techniques were used to perform a comparative study of the spectral profiles of single-base, double-base and triple-base smokeless gunpowders. Preliminary results based on visual comparison of the spectra point out that spectra obtained by both vibrational techniques were useful for a rapid identification of gunpowders containing dinitrotoluene as one of the major components and triple-base gunpowders. Additionally, the Raman spectra of gunpowders with diphenylamine in its primary composition showed a characteristic band, assigned to 2-nitro-diphenylamine, allowing the identification of this type of gunpowders.     

Internal modes by Raman and infrared spectroscopy of benzylidenemalononitrile

The polarized Raman spectra of a single crystal of benzylidenemalononitrile (BMN), as well as the infrared spectrum of a powder sample, have been measured.An assignment of the 48 fundamental vibrations is proposed, based on group frequency correlations, Raman and i.r. intensities and comparison with the spectra of parent molecules.     

Raman and infrared spectroscopy of selected vanadates

Raman and infrared spectroscopy has been used to study the structure of selected vanadates including pascoite, huemulite, barnesite, hewettite, metahewettite, hummerite. Pascoite, rauvite and huemulite are examples of simple salts involving the decavanadates anion (V10O28)6-. Decavanadate consists of four distinct VO6 units which are reflected in Raman bands at the higher wavenumbers. The Raman spectra of these minerals are characterised by two intense bands at 991 and 965 cm(-1). Four pascoite Raman bands are observed at 991, 965, 958 and 905 cm(-1) and originate from four distinct VO6 sites. The other minerals namely barnesite, hewettite, metahewettite and hummerite have similar layered structures to the decavanadates but are based upon (V5O14)3- units. Barnesite is characterised by a single Raman band at 1010 cm(-1), whilst hummerite has Raman bands at 999 and 962 cm(-1). The absence of four distinct bands indicates the overlap of the vibrational modes from two of the VO6 sites. Metarossite is characterised by a strong band at 953 cm(-1). These bands are assigned to nu1 symmetric stretching modes of (V6O16)2- units and terminal VO3 units. In the infrared spectra of these minerals, bands are observed in the 837-860 cm(-1) and in the 803-833 cm(-1) region. In some of the Raman spectra bands are observed for pascoite, hummerite and metahewettite in similar positions. These bands are assigned to nu3 antisymmetric stretching of (V10O28)6- units or (V5O14)3- units. Because of the complexity of the spectra in the low wavenumber region assignment of bands is difficult. Bands are observed in the 404-458 cm(-1) region and are assigned to the nu2 bending modes of (V10O28)6- units or (V5O14)3- units. Raman bands are observed in the 530-620 cm(-1) region and are assigned to the nu4 bending modes of (V10O28)6- units or (V5O14)3- units. The Raman spectra of the vanadates in the low wavenumber region are complex with multiple overlapping bands which are probably due to VO subunits and MO bonds.     

Micro methods in infrared and Raman spectroscopy

Summary Employing the concept of the optical conductance [1–3] and taking into account the spectroscopic properties of the sample, firstly the features of sample arrangements are given, which are using minimal amounts of sample determined by the condition of complete illumination of the different types of spectrometers and using different techniques for infrared, near-infrared and Raman micro spectroscopy. Secondly, arrangements of a micro sample are discussed, the minimal size of which is determined by the laws of diffraction. In this case the spectrometers are usually not fully illuminated. The minimal amount of sample necessary is for infrared microscopy in the order of 1000 m³ (1 pg), for Raman microscopy of the order 100 m³ (0.1 pg). Examples demonstrate the state of the art and finally developments, which can be anticipated, are outlined.     

Frozen-solution conformational analysis by REDOR spectroscopy

Frozen-solution conformational analysis (FrSCA) can be performed on organic compounds using REDOR spectroscopy. REDOR measurements on frozen aqueous solutions of 13C-methyl beta-15N-aminoglucoside indicate a bimodal distribution of conformations in a 68:32 ratio, with 13C-15N distances of 4.31 and 3.55 A, respectively. The high resolution and straightforward sample preparation make FrSCA an attractive alternative to solution-based NMR methods of conformational analysis.     

Applications of infrared and Raman spectroscopy in industry

Summary There have been many recent explosive advances in both IR and Raman spectroscopy which have developed in response to industrial problems of increasing complexity. Probably the biggest factor in these advances has been computerization, which has contributed not only to substantial improvements in data handling but to enormous gains in sensitivities of analyses as well.In this paper numerous examples of Raman and IR applications in industry are given using many of these recent advances, including in-situ techniques, microprobe analyses, unusual combinations of instruments — i.e., hyphenated methods — and new sample handling techniques. The bright future of FT-IR and Raman spectroscopy is also briefly discussed.

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Anwendungen der Infrarot- und Ramanspektroskopie in der Industrie

Zusammenfassung Infrarot- und in geringerem Maße Raman-Spektroskopie sind etablierte und wirklich alltägliche Techniken in einem gut ausgerüsteten Industrielabor. Sie werden routinemäßig bei Problemen eingesetzt, die von großer Bedeutung für den Erfolg einer Forschungs- und Entwicklungsindustrie sind.Die Untersuchung von Katalysatorstrukturen und der Oberflächenadsorptionsstellen in Hinblick auf Katalysevorgänge kann Isotopensubstitution und in situ Bestimmungen bei mittleren bis hohen Drücken und Temperaturen einschließen. Für die in situ Untersuchungen von Katalysatoren ist Raman-Spektroskopie die einfachere Methode, da das Trägermaterial keinen Einfluß hat.Untersuchungen bei hohen Drücken sind wichtig für Modellstudien bei der Ölproduktionsforschung, da hier Bandenpositionen und -intensitäten von gasförmigen/flüssigen Mischungen von Kohlenwasserstoffen mit dem Druck korreliert und für die Analyse der Zusammensetzung verwendet werden.Relativ neue Entwicklungen in der Schwingungsspektroskopie, wie Mikrotechniken und Mikroskopanordnungen, berühren alle Gebiete der Forschung und Entwicklung, die für die Ölindustrie typisch sind. Dazu gehören in der Raman-Spektroskopie die räumliche Trennung von Probe und Detektionssystem, die durch optische Fibern überbrückt wird, und viele Probentechniken in der IR-Spektroskopie wie IRAS, DRIFT und FTIR-PAS. In situ IRAS ist eine sehr leistungsstarke Methode bei der Untersuchung von beschichteten Metalloberflächen, Adhäsionsschichten und des zeitlichen Verhaltens von Beschichtungen bei Wärmebehandlung.Bei vielen analytischen Problemen liegen komplexe Gemische vor, zu deren Lösung Verbundverfahren wie GC/ FT-IR oder TGA/FT-IR beitragen können. Ebenso ist ein mobiles FT-IR-Spektrometer ein interessantes und sehr nützliches Konzept. Schließlich werden Beispiele für spektroskopische Einzelanalysen gezeigt, die entweder die besonderen oder auch die sich ergänzenden Möglichkeiten der FT-IR- und Raman-Spektroskopie ausnutzen.

     

The utility of infrared spectroscopy for quantitative conformational analysis at a single temperature

The carbonyl stretching vibration of 2-bromocyclohexanone (1) has been measured in a variety of solvents. It is shown that its component intensities are not only dependent on the populations of the axial and equatorial conformers, but are also dependent on the molar absorptivities (epsilon ) which are specific for each conformer in each solvent. In CCl(4), the axial and equatorial conformers have epsilon values of 417 and 818 l mol(-1) x cm(-1), respectively, while in CH(3)CN solution, the values were 664 and 293 l mol(-1) x cm(-1). These results are supported by results of theoretical calculations of frequencies, which gave an intensity of 223.8 kM mol(-1) x(1782 cm(-1)) for the axial and 174.4 kM mol(-1) x (1802 cm(-1)) for the equatorial conformer, indicating that the axial conformer presents a larger molar absorptivity than the equatorial one in the vapor phase. Moreover, the results presented here clearly demonstrate that although infrared spectroscopy at a single temperature can be an important auxiliary technique for conformational analysis, it must not be used to quantify conformational preferences of a molecule if the absorption molar coefficients for each conformer are not known or not amenable to experimental determination.     

High-pressure induced conformational and phase transformations of 1,2-dichloroethane probed by Raman spectroscopy

1,2-Dichloroethane (DCE) was loaded into diamond anvil cells and compressed up to 30 GPa at room temperature. Pressure-induced transformations were probed using Raman spectroscopy. At pressures below 0.6 GPa, fluid DCE exists in two conformations, gauche and trans in equilibrium, which is shifted to gauche on compression. DCE transforms to a solid phase with exclusive trans conformation upon further compression. All the characteristic Raman shifts remain constant in fluid phase and move to higher frequencies in the solid phase with increasing pressure. At about 4-5 GPa, DCE transforms from a possible disordered phase into a crystalline phase as evidenced by the observation of several lattice modes and peak narrowing. At 8-9 GPa, dramatic changes in Raman patterns of DCE were observed. The splitting of the C-C-Cl bending mode at 325 cm-1, together with the observation of inactive internal mode at 684 cm-1 as well as new lattice modes indicates another pressure-induced phase transformation. All Raman modes exhibit significant changes in pressure dependence at the transformation pressure. The new phase remains crystalline, but likely with a lower symmetry. The observed transformations are reversible in the entire pressure region upon decompression.     

远红外光谱在催化领域的应用前景(英文)

中红外光谱是催化领域的重要技术之一,已被广泛应用于催化过程的研究,而远红外光谱(FIR)的应用相对而言并不成熟.FIR可用于分析催化过程中较低能量的振动模式,如氢键、芳烃骨架振动、重原子间的伸缩振动、气体分子的转动等,从而可弥补中红外光谱的应用.在本文中,我们综述了有关FIR在催化领域的应用,FIR可以用来表征金属有机化合物类、金属原子簇类、不同晶相的氧化铝等催化剂的结构.在研究气体在催化剂表面上的吸附过程中FIR展现出独特的优势:直接检测到气体(如CO)与不同类型载体(如MOx)的成键M–C,分析两者的相互作用强度,进而表征催化剂载体表面的性质.如CO在载体M-ZSM-5(M=Li,Na,K,Rb,Cs)上的吸附强度ν(M–C)和交换离子M的1/r2成正比(r是M的半径),且CO在ZnO上的吸附强度(ν(Zn–C)=215 cm–1)相对于在M-ZSM-5的吸附较强(ν(M–C)=85–150 cm–1),因ZnO载体的电负性较碱金属强,对于CO的吸附作用更强.另外原位FIR可通过分析金属物与多种底物的相互作用强度、反应过程中催化剂的结构、浓度的变化趋势等,为催化机理的分析提供理论支持.在最新的研究成果中,我们借助原位远红外光谱研究了多种金属氯化物催化葡萄糖异构化过程的机理,经分析得知活性最高的催化剂CrCl3与底物葡萄糖分子中的羰基、羟基、乙二醇等结构配位较弱,而与葡萄糖分子中的活性部位羟基乙醛结构作用较强.而其他的金属氯化物如VCl3和FeCl3不仅与羟基乙醛结构配位较强,与底物和产物分子中的羰基或羟基的作用也较强,这对于其选择性地异构化葡萄糖不利.综上所述远红外光谱在催化领域的应用展现了广阔的前景,我们期待远红外光谱在催化研究中得到更广泛的运用.     

Monitoring cellular responses upon fatty acid exposure by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy

We investigated the applicability of FTIR-spectroscopy as a high throughput screening method for detection of biochemical changes in intact liver cells in bulk upon fatty acid exposure. HepG2 cells adapted to serum free (HepG2-SF) growth were exposed to four different fatty acids, three octadecenoic acids, differing in cis/trans-configuration or double bond position (oleic acid, elaidic acid and vaccenic acid) as well as palmitic acid in three days. High throughput FTIR spectroscopic measurements on dried films of intact cells showed spectra with high signal-to-noise ratio and great reproducibility. When applying principal component analysis (PCA) a clear discrimination between fatty acid exposures was observed. Higher levels of triacylglycerides were accumulated in cells exposed to elaidic acid than when exposed to the other fatty acids; the least accumulation appeared to be in cells exposed to palmitic acid. An increased absorption at ~966 cm(-1) corresponding to trans-double bond was detected upon elaidic acid exposure but not upon vaccenic acid exposure. Instead, upon vaccenic acid exposure two new absorption bands were observed at 981 and 946 cm(-1) due to the presence of double bond conjugation. Raman spectroscopy on single cells, with and without treatment by vaccenic acid, confirmed the presence of conjugation. By fatty acid composition analysis, the conjugation was further specified to be conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomers. Thus, instead of being preserved as a monounsaturated fatty acid, vaccenic acid was converted into CLA in HepG2 cells. The results demonstrate the applicability of high-throughput FTIR spectroscopy as an explorative method in in vitro systems from which biologically relevant hypotheses can be generated and further investigated.     

Quantitative analysis of diphenhydramine hydrochloride in pharmaceutical wafers using near infrared and Raman spectroscopy

Wafers with varying concentrations of diphenhydramine hydrochloride (DPH-HCl) as active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) were prepared and their near infrared (NIR) and Raman spectra recorded. The purpose of this study was to compare the suitability of these two vibrational spectroscopic techniques for the quantification of DPH-HCl in pharmaceutical wafers. Partial least squares (PLS1) calibration models with different data pretreatments were tested. Both NIR and Raman spectroscopy proved to be suitable to predict DPH-HCl contents at lower concentration ranges. At higher concentrations, interference by crystallization processes was observed. For investigating the general applicability of the quantification methods, two commercially available products were examined.     

Fire debris analysis by Raman spectroscopy and chemometrics

A paper reporting the use of Raman spectroscopy in fire debris analysis is presented. Five polymer based samples, namely carpet (polypropylene), nylon stockings (nylon), foam packaging (polystyrene), CD cases (polystyrene) and DVD cases (polypropylene) were burnt with each one of the following ignitable liquids: petrol, diesel, kerosene and ethanol. Raman shifts were obtained and, in some cases, peaks were identified to correspond to pyrolysis products in the form of alkanes, aromatic or polyaromatic compounds. All pyrolysis peaks were used to produce a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of the burned samples with the different ignitable liquids. The change in the Raman spectra made it possible to identify some of the pyrolysis products produced in the combustion and also to identify the different plastic materials in fire debris, even when different fuels have been used and the chemical and structural identity of the plastic has been altered in the fire.     

The destruction-free analysis of polymers by fourier transform infrared photoacoustic and fourier transform Raman spectroscopy: A comparison

With the introduction of rapid–scanning Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and recently Raman (FT–Raman) spectroscopy, vibrational spectroscopy has been launched into a new era of applications in polymer chemistry and physics. Thus, the increase in sensitivity provided by multiple scanning has led to the breakthrough of new, destruction–free sampling techniques, such as photoacoustic and Raman spectroscopy. This paper provides a comparison between data produced by FTIR photoacoustic and FT–Raman analysis of a range of polymers, and structural information available from both techniques is discussed.     

Vibrational normal modes of diazo-dimedone: a comparative study by Fourier infrared/Raman spectroscopies and conformational analysis by MM/QM

The 2-diazo-5,5-dimethyl-cyclohexane-1,3-dione (3) was synthesized and the FT-IR/Raman spectra were measured with the purpose of obtain a full assignment of the vibrational modes. Singular aspects concerning the -CNN oscillator are discussed in view of two strong bands observed in the region of 2300-2100 cm(-1) in both, Infrared and Raman spectra. The density functional theory (DFT) was used to obtain the geometrical structure and for assisting in the vibrational assignment joint to the traditional normal coordinate analysis (NCA). The observed wavenumbers at 2145 (IR), 2144(R) are assigned as the coupled nu(NN)+nu(CN) vibrational mode with higher participation of the NN stretching. A 2188 cm(-1) (IR) and at 2186 cm(-1) (R) can be assigned as a overtone of one of nu(CC) normal mode or to a combination band of the fundamentals delta(CCH) found at 1169 cm(-1) and the delta (CCN) found at 1017 cm(-1) enhanced by Fermi resonance.