On the equilibrium response of different modeling approaches for the porosity variation in dry granular matter

A selection of models for the variation in porosity in dry granular flows is investigated and compared on the basis of thermodynamic consistency to illustrate their performance and limitations in equilibrium situations. To this end, the thermodynamic analysis, based on the Müller–Liu entropy principle, is employed to deduce the ultimate constitutive equations at equilibrium. Results show that while all the models deliver appropriate equilibrium expressions of the Cauchy stress tensor for compressible grains, the model in which the variation in porosity is treated kinematically yields a spherical stress tensor for incompressible grains. Only the model in which the variation in porosity is modeled by a dynamic equation can give rise to a non-spherical stress tensor at equilibrium. The present study illuminates the validity and thermodynamic justification of the two modeling approaches for the porosity variation in dry granular matter.     

Constitutive models for granular materials including quasi-static frictional behaviour: Toward a thermodynamic theory of plasticity

This work deals with the thermodynamic formulation of constitutive models for materials whose quasi-static behaviour is governed by internal friction, e.g., dry granular materials. The process of internal friction is represented here phenomenologically with the help of a second-order, symmetric-tensor-valued internal variable. A general class of models for the evolution of this variable is considered, including as special cases a hypoelastic-like form for this relation as well as the hypoplastic form of Kolymbas (1991). The thermodynamic formulation is carried out in the context of the Müller-Liu entropy principle. Among other things, it is shown that for the hypoelastic-type models, a true equilibrium inelastic Cauchy stress exists. On the other hand, such a stress does not exist for the hypoplastic model due to its rate-independence and incremental non-linearity. With the help of a slight generalization of the notion of thermodynamic equilibrium, i.e., to thermodynamic “quasi-equilibrium,” however, such a Cauchy stress can be formulated for the hypoplastic model. As it turns out, this quasi-equilibrium for the Cauchy stress represents a thermodynamic generalization of the so-called quasi-static stress postulated for example by Goddard (1986) in the context of his viscoplastic model for a frictional-dissipative, and in particular for granular, materials. Received January 22, 1999     

Some Properties of a New Model for Slow Flow of Granular Materials

Some properties of a new continuum model for the bulk flow of a dense granular material in which neighbouring grains are in contact for a finite duration of time and in which the contact force is non-impulsive – the so called slow flow regime – are presented. The model generalises both the plastic potential and double-shearing models and contains an additional kinematic quantity – the intrinsic spin. The stress tensor is, in general, non-symmetric and separate yield conditions govern translational and rotational yield. We consider homogeneous, quasi-static loadings for the symmetric part of the stress and dynamic loading for the anti-symmetric part of the stress. A solution for the stress state in terms of a single parameter, namely the major principal direction of the symmetric part of the stress, is presented. This direction itself is determined by a consideration of the flow equations in the context both dilatant and isochoric simple shear flows. These simple flows are used to complete the characterisation of the relationship between the anti-symmetric part of the stress and the intrinsic spin.     

基于深度强化学习算法的颗粒材料应力?应变关系数据驱动模拟研究

颗粒材料的宏观力学行为受颗粒组分等材料参数, 孔隙率、配位数等状态参数的影响, 同时又具备复杂的加载路径和加载历史相关性, 建立包含多个内变量以及各变量间相互关联的颗粒材料本构模型是一个重要的科学难题. 不同于传统的基于屈服面、流动法则和硬化函数框架下的唯象本构模型, 本文基于颗粒物质力学的研究基础, 以颗粒材料平均孔隙率、细观组构参数和弹性刚度参数作为内变量, 结合深度学习方法建立以有向图表征的数据本构模型. 有向图中以不同的链接网络表示不同的内变量信息流动方向, 各个内变量间的映射关系采用循环神经网络来建立, 将各个神经网络相互组合, 形成包含不同内变量且具有不同预测能力的本构模型. 该本构模型的建立过程等价于在众多可能的内变量链接关系空间中寻找最能描述实际材料宏观应力应变行为的优化问题. 因此, 可将有向图本构模型的建立过程看作“马尔可夫决策过程”, 采用深度强化学习算法构建有向图的内变量链接组合优化过程, 具体采用AlphaGo Zero算法自动寻找最优的颗粒材料数据驱动本构模型建模路径. 研究结果表明, 采用有向图和深度强化学习算法可建立起完全依靠“数据驱动”的颗粒材料应力?应变关系. 此外, 本方法提供了一种将不同理论模型从数据角度统一起来, 且基于人工智能算法发展更优模型的研究思路, 可为相似问题的研究提供借鉴.      

A generalized Mohr–Coulomb criterion implied by the revised Goodman–Cowin theory

In the present study, the constitutive relations derived in the revised Goodman–Cowin theory for granular matter are shown to imply a generalized Mohr–Coulomb criterion for impending flows. Due to the concept of microcontinuum and the incorporation of the internal friction into the expression of the Cauchy stress tensor, a constrained equilibrium stress state characterized by the Mohr–Coulomb criterion is yet obtained under uniform distributions of the grains.     

Towards a constitutive law for the unsteady contact stress in granular media

In order to build a unified modelling for granular media by means of Eulerian averaged equations, it is necessary to study two contributions in the effective Cauchy stress tensor: the first one concerns solid and fluid matter, including contact and collisions between grains; the second one focuses on the random movements of grains and fluid, similar to Reynolds stress for turbulent flows. It is shown that the point of view of piecewise continuous media already used for two phase flows allows one to derive a constitutive equation for the first contribution, under the form of a partial differential equation. Similarly as for the Reynolds stress in turbulent flows, this equation cannot be written only in terms of averaged quantities without adequate approximations. The structure of the closed equation is discussed with respect to irreversible thermodynamics, and in connection with some already existing models. It is emphasised that numerical simulations by the discrete elements method can be used in order to validate these approximations, through numerical experiments statistically considered. Finally an extension of this approach to the second contribution of the effective Cauchy stress tensor is briefly discussed, showing how the modelling of both contributions have to be coupled.      

Accounting for Buoyancy Effects in the Explicit Algebraic Stress Model: Homogeneous Turbulent Shear Flows

Most explicit algebraic stress models are formulated for turbulent shear flows without accounting for external body force effects, such as the buoyant force. These models yield fairly good predictions of the turbulence field generated by mean shear. As for thermal turbulence generated by the buoyant force, the models fail to give satisfactory results. The reason is that the models do not explicitly account for buoyancy effects, which interact with the mean shear to enhance or suppress turbulent mixing. Since applicable, coupled differential equations have been developed describing these thermal turbulent fields, it is possible to develop corresponding explicit algebraic stress models using tensor representation theory. While the procedure to be followed has been employed previously, unique challenges arise in extending the procedure for developing the algebraic representations to turbulent buoyant flows. In this paper the development of an explicit algebraic stress model (EASM) is confined to the homogeneous buoyant shear flow case to illustrate the methodology needed to develop the proper polynomial representations. The derivation is based on the implicit formulation of the Reynolds stress anisotropy at buoyant equilibrium. A five-term representation is found to be necessary to account properly for the effect of the thermal field. Thus derived, external buoyancy effects are represented in the scalar coefficients of the basis tensors, and structural buoyancy effects are accounted for in additional terms in the stress anisotropy tensor. These terms will not vanish even in the absence of mean shear. The performance of the new EASM, together with a two-equation (2-Eq) model, the non-buoyant EASM of Gatski and Speziale (1993) and a full second-order model, is assessed against direct numerical simulations of homogeneous, buoyant shear flows at two different Richardson numbers representing weak and strong buoyancy effects. The calculations show that this five-term representation yields better results than the 2-Eq model and the EASM of Gatski and Speziale where buoyancy effects are not explicitly accounted for. Received 5 March 2001 and accepted 15 January 2002     

轴对称再入舱模型气动热特性数值模拟研究

应用基于块结构网格的有限体积求解方法,对热化学非平衡环境下轴对称再入舱模型的气动热特性进行了数值模拟。控制方程为带化学反应的多组元轴对称N-S方程,空间离散采用VanLeer迎风格式,时间推进为隐式LU-SGS格式;采用7组元7化学反应模型及Park双温模型模拟再入流场的热化学非平衡效应。对Hollis MP-1模型的气动热特性进行了数值模拟,分别就网格效应、湍流模型、流场的热力学性质对流场的气动力、热环境的影响进行了深入研究。研究结果表明:SST模型与k-w1998模型能更准确地计算再入流场热流峰值的位置与大小;在再入舱模型的局部区域,采用热力学非平衡模型计算的物面压强与热流结果要明显低于热力学平衡模型的结果。     

A k–$${\varepsilon}$$ turbulence closure model of an isothermal dry granular dense matter

The turbulent flow characteristics of an isothermal dry granular dense matter with incompressible grains are investigated by the proposed first-order k–\({\varepsilon}\) turbulence closure model. Reynolds-filter process is applied to obtain the balance equations of the mean fields with two kinematic equations describing the time evolutions of the turbulent kinetic energy and dissipation. The first and second laws of thermodynamics are used to derive the equilibrium closure relations satisfying turbulence realizability conditions, with the dynamic responses postulated by a quasi-linear theory. The established closure model is applied to analyses of a gravity-driven stationary flow down an inclined moving plane. While the mean velocity decreases monotonically from its value on the moving plane toward the free surface, the mean porosity increases exponentially; the turbulent kinetic energy and dissipation evolve, respectively, from their minimum and maximum values on the plane toward their maximum and minimum values on the free surface. The evaluated mean velocity and porosity correspond to the experimental outcomes, while the turbulent dissipation distribution demonstrates a similarity to that of Newtonian fluids in turbulent shear flows. When compared to the zero-order model, the turbulent eddy evolution tends to enhance the transfer of the turbulent kinetic energy and plane shearing across the flow layer, resulting in more intensive turbulent fluctuation in the upper part of the flow. Solid boundary as energy source and sink of the turbulent kinetic energy becomes more apparent in the established first-order model.     

快速颗粒流碰撞应力的动理模型

颗粒碰撞是快速颗粒流的动量传递,能量传递及耗散的主要机制。因此,碰撞应力是快速颗粒流研究的主要内容。本文基于大小均匀、光滑圆球颗粒的非弹性碰撞模型,类比气体分子动理论中的处理方法得出快速颗粒流积分形式的碰撞应力,能量传递通量及能量耗散率等关系。在颗粒速度分布函数的一级近似式符合Maxwell分布的假设下,对碰撞应力积分得出相应于Boltzmann方程二级近似解的碰撞应力表达式。在简单快速颗粒流动条件下,本文的理论结果与实验资料符合较好。     

Multi-slip gradient formulation for modeling microstructure effects on shear bands in granular materials

This paper presents a higher order gradient multi-slip formulation to model the effect of inhomogeneous deformation in granular materials. The effects of heterogeneity and porosity anisotropy within the multi-slip formulation are taken into consideration through the modification of the mobilized friction. The mobilized friction is assumed to be a direct function of either the gradient of the porosity distribution or the fabric tensor. The formulation with two active slip planes was implemented into a finite element code and used to simulate biaxial shear tests on dry sand. The analysis quantifies most of the shear band characteristics observed by past experimentation. It is shown that the localization and shear band characteristics in granular materials are very much dependent on the initial fabric and slip system arrangement.     

A thermo-mechanical continuum theory with internal length for cohesionless granular materials

This article continues Part I. Here the non-equilibrium responses of the constitutive variables t (Cauchy stress tensor), q (heat flux vector), h (equilibrated stress vector), Γ (flux term associated with the internal length ℓ), Π (production term associated with ℓ) and f (equilibrated intrinsic body force) as well as the Helmholtz free energy Ψ are postulated by use of a quasi-linear theory for three of four models deduced in Part I. In so doing, together with the equilibrium responses gained in Part I, a complete set of constitutive equations for the constitutive quantities for each model is obtained. The implemented models are applied to investigate typical isothermal steady granular shearing flows with incompressible grains, namely, simple plane shear flow, inclined gravity-driven flow and vertical channel-flow. The emphasis is on the models in which ℓ is considered a material constant (Model I) and an independent dynamic field quantity (Model III). Numerical results show that Model III is more appropriate than Model I since in the former model the effect of the motion of an individual grain can better be taken into account. Such a result is in particular significant for avalanches, since it verifies the existence of a thin layer immediately above the base of an avalanche, in which the grains are colliding strongly with one another, and provides a quantitative means to measure such a thin layer.     

Predicting Buoyant Shear Flows Using Anisotropic Dissipation Rate Models

This paper examines the modeling of two-dimensional homogeneous stratified turbulent shear flows using the Reynolds-stress and Reynolds-heat-flux equations. Several closure models have been investigated; the emphasis is placed on assessing the effect of modeling the dissipation rate tensor in the Reynolds-stress equation. Three different approaches are considered; one is an isotropic approach while the other two are anisotropic approaches. The isotropic approach is based on Kolmogorov's hypothesis and a dissipation rate equation modified to account for vortex stretching. One of the anisotropic approaches is based on an algebraic representation of the dissipation rate tensor, while another relies on solving a modeled transport equation for this tensor. In addition, within the former anisotropic approach, two different algebraic representations are examined; one is a function of the Reynolds-stress anisotropy tensor, and the other is a function of the mean velocity gradients. The performance of these closure models is evaluated against experimental and direct numerical simulation data of pure shear flows, pure buoyant flows and buoyant shear flows. Calculations have been carried out over a range of Richardson numbers (Ri) and two different Prandtl numbers (Pr); thus the effect of Pr on the development of counter-gradient heat flux in a stratified shear flow can be assessed. At low Ri, the isotropic model performs well in the predictions of stratified shear flows; however, its performance deteriorates as Ri increases. At high Ri, the transport equation model for the dissipation rate tensor gives the best result. Furthermore, the results also lend credence to the algebraic dissipation rate model based on the Reynolds stress anisotropy tensor. Finally, it is found that Pr has an effect on the development of counter-gradient heat flux. The calculations show that, under the action of shear, counter-gradient heat flux does not occur even at Ri = 1 in an air flow. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

A generalized continuum theory for granular materials

A generalized continuum theory for granular media is formulated by allowing for the possibility of rotation of granules. The basic balance laws are presented and based on thermodynamical consideration a set of constitutive equations are derived. The theory naturally gives rise to the generation of antisymmetric stress tensor and existence of couple stresses. The basic equations of motion are derived and it is shown that the theory contains Mohr-Coulomb criterion of limiting equilibrium as a special case. The problem of coupled porosity and microrotational wave propagation is investigated and the rectilinear shear flow of granular materials is discussed.     

A unified evolution equation for the Cauchy stress tensor of an isotropic elasto-visco-plastic material

In the present study an evolution equation for the Cauchy stress tensor is proposed for an isotropic elasto-visco-plastic continuum. The proposed stress model takes effects of elasticity, viscosity and plasticity of the material simultaneously into account. It is ascribed with some scalar coefficient functions and, in particular, with an unspecified tensor-valued function N, which is handled as an independent constitutive quantity. It is demonstrated that by varying the values and the specific functional forms of these coefficients and N, different known models in non-Newtonian rheology can be reproduced. A thermodynamic analysis, based on the Müller–Liu entropy principle, is performed. The results show that these coefficients and N are not allowed to vary arbitrarily, but should satisfy certain restrictions. Simple postulates are made to further simplify the deduced general results of the thermodynamic analysis. They yield justification and thermodynamic consistency of the existing models for a class of materials embracing thermoelasticity, hypoelasticity and in particular hypoplasticity, of which the thermodynamic foundation is established successively for the first time in literature. The study points at the wide applicability and practical usefulness of the present model in different fields from non-Newtonian fluid to solid mechanics. In this paper the thermodynamic analysis of the proposed evolution-type stress model is discussed, its applications are reported later.      

颗粒材料三维应力路径下的接触组构特性

颗粒材料的宏观应力变形特征与其微观接触力、组构等紧密相关.一般而言,强接触系统属于颗粒内部体系的传力结构,其对应的组构张量是影响宏观应力性质的重要因素.细观数值方法(如离散单元法)能够反映物理试验的基本规律,并且可以方便地提取宏微观数据来研究颗粒体系的应力变形机制.采用离散单元法(discrete element method,DEM)进行一系列等$p$等$b$应力路径下颗粒材料的真三轴试验,在此基础上研究了三维应力路径下颗粒材料的宏微观力学参数的演化过程、三维组构张量与应力张量多重联系以及强接触体系反映的宏观应力特征.研究表明:颗粒体系偏应力峰值状态和临界状态均存在与加载路径无关的宏微观特征;三维应力路径下组构张量与应力张量存在非共轴性,但其联合不变量演化过程表现出加载路径无关的特征;与弱接触系统的组构张量相比,强接触系统的组构张量更能反映宏观应力张量的特征;强弱接触体系的组构张量对颗粒体系宏观响应的贡献不同,其分界点存在一定取值范围,但采用平均接触力较为简单合理.      

Pressure calculations in disperse and continuous multiphase flows

In many models for disperse two-phase flows, the pressure of the disperse phase is often assumed to be the same as that of the continuous phase, or differ only by an amount caused by the surface tension. This type of model is referred to as an equilibrium pressure model. Recent research indicates that the stress difference between the phases caused by dynamics of the motion can be significantly important in the modeling of disperse two-phase flows. Although this difference is still ignored in most calculations of disperse multiphase flows for various reasons, when an equilibrium pressure model is applied to continuous multiphase flows, a conceptual difficulty arises. For instance, the equilibrium pressure model cannot be used to study the tensile break of a sponge with interconnected pores, because the air in the pores can never go into tension while the sponge material does not break without tension.     

Thermomechanical Multiscale Constitutive Modeling: Accounting for Microstructural Thermal Effects

In this work we present a thermomechanical multiscale constitutive model for materials with microstructure. In these materials thermal effects at microscale have an impact on the effective macroscopic stress. As a result, it turns out that the homogenized stress depends upon the macroscopic temperature and its gradient. In order to allow this interplay to be thermodynamically valid, we resort to a macroscopic extended thermodynamics whose elements are derived from the microscopic behavior using homogenization concepts. Hence, the thermodynamics implications of this new class of multiscale models are discussed. A variational approach based on the Hill–Mandel Principle of Macro-homogeneity, and which makes use of the volume averaging concept over a local representative volume element (RVE), is employed to derive the thermal and mechanical equilibrium problems at the RVE level and the corresponding homogenization expressions for the effective heat flux and stress. The material behavior at the RVE level is described through standard phenomenological constitutive models. To sum up, the novel contribution of the model presented here is that it allows to include the microscopic temperature fluctuation field, obtained from the multiscale thermal analysis, in the micro-mechanical problem at the RVE level while keeping thermodynamic consistency.     

含液颗粒材料液固耦合分析的离散颗粒模型及特征线SPH法

对含液颗粒材料流固耦合分析建议了一个基于离散颗粒模型与特征线SPH法的显式拉格朗日-欧拉无网格方案。在已有的用以模拟固体颗粒集合体的离散颗粒模型[1]基础上,将颗粒间间隙内的流体模型化为连续介质,对其提出并推导了基于特征线的SPH法。数值例题显示了所建议方案在模拟颗粒材料与间隙流相互作用的能力和性能以及间隙流体对颗粒结构承载能力及变形的影响。