Magnitude-dependence of equivalent comfort contours for fore-and-aft, lateral and vertical whole-body vibration

It is currently assumed that the same frequency weightings, derived from studies of vibration discomfort, can be used to evaluate the severity of vibration at all vibration magnitudes from the threshold of vibration perception to the vibration magnitudes associated with risks to health. This experimental study determined equivalent comfort contours for the whole-body vibration of seated subjects over the frequency range 2-315 Hz in each of the three orthogonal axes (fore-and-aft, lateral and vertical). The contours were determined at vibration magnitudes from the threshold of perception to levels associated with severe discomfort and risks to health.At frequencies greater than 10 Hz, thresholds for the perception of vertical vibration were lower than thresholds for fore-and-aft and lateral vibration. At frequencies less than 4 Hz, thresholds for vertical vibration were higher than thresholds for fore-and-aft and lateral vibration. The rate of growth of sensation with increasing vibration magnitude was highly dependent on the frequency and axis of vibration. Consequently, the shapes of the equivalent comfort contours depended on vibration magnitude. At medium and high vibration magnitudes, the equivalent comfort contours were reasonably consistent with the frequency weightings for vibration discomfort in current standards (i.e. W_b and W_d). At low vibration magnitudes, the contours indicate that relative to lower frequencies the standards underestimate sensitivity at frequencies greater than about 30 Hz. The results imply that no single linear frequency weighting can provide accurate predictions of discomfort caused by a wide range of magnitudes of whole-body vibration.     

Magnitude-dependence of equivalent comfort contours for fore-and-aft, lateral, and vertical vibration at the foot for seated persons

Vibration at the feet can contribute to discomfort in many forms of transport and in some buildings. Knowledge of the frequency-dependence of discomfort caused by foot vibration, and how this varies with vibration magnitude, will assist the prediction of discomfort caused by vibration. With groups of 12 seated subjects, this experimental study determined absolute thresholds for the perception of foot vibration and quantified the discomfort caused by vibration at the foot. The study investigated a wide range of magnitudes (from the threshold of perception to levels associated with severe discomfort) over a wide range of frequencies (from 8 to 315 Hz in one-third octave steps) in each of the three orthogonal translational axes (fore-and-aft, lateral, and vertical). The effects of gender and shoes on absolute thresholds for the perception of vertical vibration at the foot were also investigated. Within each of the three axes, the vibration acceleration corresponding to the absolute thresholds for the perception of vibration, and also all contours showing conditions producing equivalent discomfort, were highly frequency-dependent at frequencies greater than about 40 Hz. The acceleration threshold contours were U-shaped at frequencies greater than 80 Hz in all three axes of excitation, suggesting the involvement of the Pacinian channel in vibration perception. At supra-threshold levels, the frequency-dependence of the equivalent comfort contours in each of the three axes was highly dependent on vibration magnitude. With increasing vibration magnitude, the conditions causing similar discomfort across the frequency range approximated towards constant velocity. Thresholds were not greatly affected by wearing shoes or subject gender. The derived frequency weightings imply that no single linear frequency weighting can provide accurate predictions of discomfort caused by a wide range of magnitudes of foot vibration.     

Difference thresholds for intensity perception of whole-body vertical vibration: effect of frequency and magnitude

Difference thresholds for seated subjects exposed to whole-body vertical sinusoidal vibration have been determined at two vibration magnitudes [0.1 and 0.5 ms(-2) root mean square (r.m.s.)] and at two frequencies (5 and 20 Hz). For 12 subjects, difference thresholds were determined using the up-and-down transformed response method based on two-interval forced-choice tracking. At both frequencies, the difference thresholds increased by a factor of five when the magnitude of the vibration increased from 0.1 to 0.5 ms(-2) r.m.s. The median relative difference thresholds, Weber fractions (deltaI/I), expressed as percentages, were about 10% and did not differ significantly between the two vibration magnitudes or the two frequencies. It is concluded that for the conditions investigated the difference thresholds for whole-body vibration are approximately consistent with Weber's Law. A vibration magnitude will need to be reduced by more than about 10% for the change to be detectable by human subjects; vibration measurements will be required to detect reductions of less than 10%.     

Intensity discrimination of pulsed tones by the goldfish (Carassius auratus)

Intensity discrimination thresholds for 500-ms pure-tone bursts were measured as a function of frequency in the goldfish (Carassius auratus) using classical respiratory conditioning. At 55-dB sensation level (SL), thresholds range from 1.44-2.2 dB between 100 and 1600 Hz. There is not important effect of frequency on intensity discrimination. Thresholds at 35-dB SL average 0.7 dB higher than at 55-dB SL. This is a small difference in the context of the threshold variability. In intensity discrimination acuity, the goldfish is quantitatively similar to other vertebrates, including birds and mammals.     

Effect of voluntary periodic muscular activity on nonlinearity in the apparent mass of the seated human body during vertical random whole-body vibration

The principal resonance frequency in the driving-point impedance of the human body decreases with increasing vibration magnitude—a nonlinear response. An understanding of the nonlinearities may advance understanding of the mechanisms controlling body movement and improve anthropodynamic modelling of responses to vibration at various magnitudes. This study investigated the effects of vibration magnitude and voluntary periodic muscle activity on the apparent mass resonance frequency using vertical random vibration in the frequency range 0.5-20 Hz. Each of 14 subjects was exposed to 14 combinations of two vibration magnitudes (0.25 and 2.0 m s⁻² root-mean square (rms)) in seven sitting conditions: two without voluntary periodic movement (A: upright; B: upper-body tensed), and five with voluntary periodic movement (C: back-abdomen bending; D: folding-stretching arms from back to front; E: stretching arms from rest to front; F: folding arms from elbow; G: deep breathing). Three conditions with voluntary periodic movement significantly reduced the difference in resonance frequency at the two vibration magnitudes compared with the difference in a static sitting condition. Without voluntary periodic movement (condition A: upright), the median apparent mass resonance frequency was 5.47 Hz at the low vibration magnitude and 4.39 Hz at the high vibration magnitude. With voluntary periodic movement (C: back-abdomen bending), the resonance frequency was 4.69 Hz at the low vibration magnitude and 4.59 Hz at the high vibration magnitude. It is concluded that back muscles, or other muscles or tissues in the upper body, influence biodynamic responses of the human body to vibration and that voluntary muscular activity or involuntary movement of these parts can alter their equivalent stiffness.     

The vibration discomfort of standing persons: 0.5-16-Hz fore-and-aft, lateral, and vertical vibration

To minimise the discomfort of standing people caused by vibration of a floor, it is necessary to know how their sensitivity to vibration depends on the frequency of the vibration. This study was designed to determine how the discomfort of standing people exposed to horizontal and vertical vibration depends on vibration frequency over the range 0.5-16 Hz. Using the method of magnitude estimation, sixteen subjects judged the discomfort caused by fore-and-aft, lateral, and vertical sinusoidal vibration at each of the sixteen preferred one-third octave centre frequencies from 0.5 to 16 Hz at each of nine magnitudes. Subjects also reported the main cause of their discomfort. Equivalent comfort contours were constructed, reflecting the effect of frequency on subject sensitivity to vibration acceleration. With horizontal vibration, at frequencies between 0.5 and 3.15 Hz the discomfort was similar when the vibration velocity was similar, whereas at frequencies between 3.15 and 16 Hz the discomfort was similar when the vibration acceleration was similar. At frequencies less than 3.15 Hz, the subjects experienced problems with their stability, whereas at higher frequencies vibration discomfort was mostly experienced from sensations in the legs and feet. With vertical vibration, discomfort was felt in the lower-body and upper-body at all frequencies. The frequency weightings in current standards for predicting the vibration discomfort of standing persons have been greatly influenced by the findings of studies with seated subjects: the weightings are consistent with the experimentally determined frequency-dependence of discomfort caused by vertical vibration but inconsistent with the experimentally determined frequency-dependence of discomfort caused by horizontal vibration. The results suggest that the responses of seated and standing people are similar for vertical vibration, but differ for horizontal vibration, partly due to greater instability in standing persons.     

Non-linear dual-axis biodynamic response to vertical whole-body vibration

Seated human subjects have been exposed to vertical whole-body vibration so as to investigate the non-linearity in their biodynamic responses and quantify the response in directions other than the direction of excitation. Twelve males were exposed to random vertical vibration in the frequency range 0.25-25 Hz at four vibration magnitudes (0.125, 0.25, 0.625, and 1.25 m s⁻² r.m.s.). The subjects sat in four sitting postures having varying foot heights so as to produce differing thigh contact with the seat (feet hanging, feet supported with maximum thigh contact, feet supported with average thigh contact, and feet supported with minimum thigh contact). Forces were measured in the vertical, fore-and-aft, and lateral directions on the seat and in the vertical direction at the footrest.The characteristic non-linear response of the human body with reducing resonance frequency at increasing vibration magnitudes was seen in all postures, but to a lesser extent with minimum thigh contact. Appreciable forces in the fore-and-aft direction also showed non-linearity, while forces in the lateral direction were low and showed no consistent trend. Forces at the feet were non-linear with a multi-resonant behaviour and were affected by the position of the legs.The decreased non-linearity with the minimum thigh contact posture suggests the tissues of the buttocks affect the non-linearity of the body more than the tissues of the thighs. The forces in the fore-and-aft direction are consistent with the body moving in two directions when exposed to vertical vibration. The non-linear behaviour of the body, and the considerable forces in the fore-aft direction should be taken into account when optimizing vibration isolation devices.     

The vibration of inclined backrests: perception and discomfort of vibration applied normal to the back in the x-axis of the body

The vibration of backrests contributes to the discomfort of drivers and passengers. A frequency weighting exists for evaluating the vibration of vertical backrests but not for reclined backrests often used during travel. This experimental study was designed to determine how backrest inclination and the frequency of vibration influence perception thresholds and vibration discomfort when the vibration is applied normal to the back (i.e. fore-and-aft vibration when seated upright and vertical vibration when fully reclined). Twelve subjects experienced the vibration of a backrest (at each of the 11 preferred one-third octave centre frequencies in the range 2.5–25 Hz) at vibration magnitudes from the threshold of perception to 24 dB above threshold. Initially, absolute thresholds for the perception of vibration were determined with four backrest inclinations: 0° (upright), 30°, 60° and 90° (recumbent). The method of magnitude estimation was then used to obtain judgements of vibration discomfort with each of the four backrest angles. Finally, the relative discomfort between the four backrest angles, and the principal locations for feeling vibration discomfort in the body, were determined. With all backrest inclinations, absolute thresholds for the perception of vibration acceleration were dependent on the frequency of vibration. As the backrest inclination became more horizontal, the thresholds increased at frequencies between 4 and 8 Hz. For all backrest inclinations, the rate of growth of discomfort with increasing magnitude of vibration was independent of the frequency of vibration, so the frequency-dependence of discomfort was similar over the range of magnitudes investigated (0.04–0.6 m s^?2 rms). With an upright backrest, the discomfort caused by vibration acceleration tended to be greatest at frequencies less than about 8 Hz. With inclined backrests (at 30°, 60°, and 90°), the equivalent comfort contours were broadly similar to each other, with greatest discomfort caused by acceleration around 10 or 12.5 Hz. At frequencies from 4 to 8 Hz, 30–40 percent greater magnitudes of vibration were required with the three inclined backrests to cause discomfort equivalent to that caused by the upright backrest. It is concluded that with an upright backrest the frequency weighting W_c used in current standards is appropriate for predicting the discomfort caused by fore-and-aft backrest vibration. With inclined and horizontal backrests, a weighting similar to frequency weighting W_b (used to predict discomfort caused by vertical seat vibration) appears more appropriate.     

Detection of interaural phase shift between a subaudible and an audible tone

Can a shift in interaural phase between a subthreshold signal and an audible contralateral probe tone affect perception of the probe? To obtain an answer, an 800-Hz tone was presented to both ears. The tone was presented continuously to one ear (-25 to + 10 dB SL) and in a sequence of four bursts per trial to the other ear (+ 10 dB SL). Interaural phase was reversed for either the second or the fourth burst in a 2 AFC task. Interaural phase-shift detection threshold (65% correct) varied with the intensity of the continuous signal; across subjects, this threshold varied from -21 to + 1 dB SL. When a 300-or 500-Hz masking tone was added to the ear with the continuous signal, phase-shift detection accuracy depended primarily upon the sensation level of the signal rather than its sound pressure level. These findings demonstrate temporal encoding at signal levels well below hearing threshold.     

Evaluation of vertical vibration given to the human foot

The effects of acceleration amplitudes and frequencies of vertical foot vibration on mechanical and sensation responses were studied in two sets of experiments. The first experiments determined the mechanical characteristics of the foot in three seated subjects at frequencies between 5 and 1000 Hz, in terms of the driving point mechanical impedances and acceleration transmission ratios between the foot and lower leg. In the second set of experiments, sensation scales for foot vibrations were determined in ten seated subjects at octave center frequencies between 8 and 400 Hz, which involved equal sensations of continuous and impulsive motions, sensation magnitudes, and rating of five successive categories of sinusoidal motion. Contours of mechanical and sensational responses are presented. Using the results obtained, a foot response meter was made and used in a field survey to evaluate foot vibration.     

Transient masking and the temporal course of simultaneous tone-on-tone masking

Previous studies have shown that threshold for a signal in tone-on-tone simultaneous masking is sometimes lower when the masker is continuous than when it is gated. Threshold may also decline as signal onset is delayed relative to the onset of a longer duration masker, though it may increase again near masker offset. In the present study, the level of a 1250-Hz sinusoidal masker was found which would just mask a 20-ms, 1000-Hz sinusoid presented at 10-dB sensation level (SL). Masker duration was 20 or 400 ms; in the latter case, the signal was presented in one of three temporal positions within the masker. The level of the 1250-Hz masker necessary to mask the signal was reduced, sometimes by as much as 20-25 dB, by a 20-ms, 500-Hz sinusoid (transient masker) presented at the times when the signal might occur, but at a level 30 dB below that at which it would mask the 10-dB SL signal. This suggests that, in the earlier studies, at least some of the elevation in threshold in the presence of a short-duration masker or at the beginning (or end) of a longer duration masker may have been due to the transient responses to the masker affecting detection of the signal, but not necessarily masking the signal in terms of excitation in the signal "channel."     

Attenuation of flexural vibration for floating floor and floating box induced by ground vibration

This paper investigates the vibration isolation performance of floating floor and floating box structures to control rail vibration transmission. Simple theoretical and experimental methods are developed to analyze the effects of stiffener beam, mass and arrangement of isolator on the fundamental natural frequency of the flexural vibration of floating floor and box structure.The vibration reduction performances of floating floor and box structure are found to be degraded by flexural vibration of the floor or supporting stiffener beam. From the results of vibration measurements; stiffener beams increase the fundamental natural frequency of flexural vibration of floating floor and enhance vibration isolation. Also they can further alleviate the effect of flexural vibration using optimum isolator arrangement effectively. The proposed floating box design achieved a vibration reduction of 15-30 dB in frequency region of critical rail vibration (30-200 Hz).     

Discrimination of interaural temporal disparities by normal-hearing listeners and listeners with high-frequency sensorineural hearing loss

Thresholds of ongoing interaural time difference (ITD) were obtained from normal-hearing and hearing-impaired listeners who had high-frequency, sensorineural hearing loss. Several stimuli (a 500-Hz sinusoid, a narrow-band noise centered at 500 Hz, a sinusoidally amplitude-modulated 4000-Hz tone, and a narrow-band noise centered at 4000 Hz) and two criteria [equal sound-pressure level (Eq SPL) and equal sensation level (Eq SL)] for determining the level of stimuli presented to each listener were employed. The ITD thresholds and slopes of the psychometric functions were elevated for hearing-impaired listeners for the two high-frequency stimuli in comparison to: the listener's own low-frequency thresholds; and data obtained from normal-hearing listeners for stimuli presented with Eq SPL interaurally. The two groups of listeners required similar ITDs to reach threshold when stimuli were presented at Eq SLs to each ear. For low-frequency stimuli, the ITD thresholds of the hearing-impaired listener were generally slightly greater than those obtained from the normal-hearing listeners. Whether these stimuli were presented at either Eq SPL or Eq SL did not differentially affect the ITD thresholds across groups.     

Equal sensation curves for whole-body vibration expressed as a function of driving force

Previous studies have shown that the seated human is most sensitive to whole-body vertical vibration at about 5 Hz. Similarly, the body shows an apparent mass resonance at about 5 Hz. Considering these similarities between the biomechanical and subjective responses, it was hypothesized that, at low frequencies, subjective ratings of whole-body vibration might be directly proportional to the driving force. Twelve male subjects participated in a laboratory experiment where subjects sat on a rigid seat mounted on a shaker. The magnitude of a test stimulus was adjusted such that the subjective intensity could be matched to a reference stimulus, using a modified Bruceton test protocol. The sinusoidal reference stimulus was 8-Hz vibration with a magnitude of 0.5 m/s2 rms (or 0.25 m/s2 rms for the 1-Hz test); the sinusoidal test stimuli had frequencies of 1, 2, 4, 16, and 32 Hz. Equal sensation contours in terms of seat acceleration showed data similar to those in the literature. Equal sensation contours in terms of force showed a nominally linear response at 1, 2, and 4 Hz, but an increasing sensitivity at higher frequencies. This is in agreement with a model derived from published subjective and objective fitted data.     

Frequency discrimination in the goldfish (Carassius auratus): effects of roving intensity, sensation level, and the direction of frequency change

The ability of goldfish to detect a change in the frequency of 400-Hz pure-tone bursts was studied using classical respiratory conditioning. The frequency discrimination threshold was measured at 15-, 35-, and 55-dB sensation level (SL), under conditions of (1) constant intensity, (2) roving intensity (plus and minus 6-dB burst-to-burst variation in intensity), (3) upward frequency change, and (4) downward frequency change. There was no overall effect of SL on frequency discrimination, but roving the intensity elevated thresholds by about 6 Hz (33%) and increased variability. Upward shifts in frequency elevated thresholds slightly (by 2 Hz or 10%) relative to downward shifts. These relatively small and statistically insignificant effects suggest that earlier measures of frequency discrimination in the goldfish are not due to the detection of simple changes in spike rate within individual peripheral channels.     

Factors affecting perception thresholds of vertical whole-body vibration in recumbent subjects: Gender and age of subjects, and vibration duration

Some factors that may affect human perception thresholds of the vertical whole-body vibrations were investigated in two laboratory experiments with recumbent subjects. In the first experiment, the effects of gender and age of subjects on perception were investigated with three groups of 12 subjects, i.e., young males, young females and old males. For continuous sinusoidal vibrations at 2, 4, 8, 16, 31.5 and 63 Hz, there were no significant differences in the perception thresholds between male and female subjects, while the thresholds of young subjects tended to be significantly lower than the thresholds of old subjects. In the second experiment, the effect of vibration duration was investigated by using sinusoidal vibrations, at the same frequencies as above, modulated by the Hanning windows with different lengths (i.e., 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 4.0 s) for 12 subjects. It was found that the peak acceleration at the threshold tended to decrease with increasing duration of vibration. The perception thresholds were also evaluated by the running root-mean-square (rms) acceleration and the fourth power acceleration method defined in the current standards. The differences in the threshold of the transient vibrations for different durations were less with the fourth power acceleration method. Additionally, the effect of the integration time on the threshold was investigated for the running rms acceleration and the fourth power acceleration. It was found that the integration time that yielded less differences in the threshold of vibrations for different durations depended on the frequency of vibration.     

Apparent mass of the human body in the vertical direction: Inter-subject variability

The biodynamic responses of the seated human body to whole-body vibration vary considerably between people, but the reasons for the variability are not well understood. This study was designed to determine how the physical characteristics of people affect their apparent mass and whether inter-subject variability is influenced by the magnitude of vibration and the support of a seat backrest. The vertical apparent masses of 80 seated adults (41 males and 39 females aged 18-65) were measured at frequencies between 0.6 and 20 Hz with four backrest conditions (no backrest, upright rigid backrest, reclined rigid backrest, reclined foam backrest) and with three magnitudes of random vibration (0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 m s^-2 rms). Relationships between subject physical characteristics (age, gender, weight, and anthropometry) and subject apparent mass were investigated with multiple regression models. The strongest predictor of the modulus of the vertical apparent mass at 0.6 Hz, at resonance, and at 12 Hz was body weight, with other factors having only a marginal effect. After correction for other variables, the principal resonance frequency was most consistently associated with age and body mass index. As age increased from 18 to 65 years, the resonance frequency increased by up to 1.7 Hz, and when the body mass index was increased from 18 to 34 kg m⁻² the resonance frequency decreased by up to 1.7 Hz. These changes were greater than the 0.9-Hz increase in resonance frequency between sitting without a backrest and sitting with a reclined rigid backrest, and greater than the 1.0-Hz reduction in resonance frequency when the magnitude of vibration increased from 0.5 to 1.5 m s⁻² rms. It is concluded that the effects of age, body mass index, posture, vibration magnitude, and weight should be taken into account when defining the vertical apparent mass of the seated human body.     

Intensity difference limens at high frequencies

Thresholds for amplitude modulation detection were obtained from four subjects at frequencies of 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 kHz for sensation levels of 15, 30, 45, and 60 dB and modulation rates of 2, 4, and 8 Hz. High-frequency difference limens calculated from amplitude modulation thresholds were found to change nonmonotonically as a function of sensation level, independent of modulation rate. This nonmonotonic relation stemmed mainly from a gradual reduction of the difference limen at the lowest sensation level with increasing frequency. Difference limens for pulsed tone discrimination were also measured in two of the subjects at 2, 6, and 10 kHz and sensation levels of 15, 30, 45, and 60 dB. The relation between intensity discrimination and sensation level was similar to that found for amplitude modulation detection. These findings are interpreted as indicating that the nonmonotonic relation between sensation level and intensity resolution is a general characteristic of stimulus processing at higher frequencies.     

Time course of adaptation and recovery from adaptation in the cat auditory-nerve neurophonic

The auditory-nerve neurophonic (ANN) reflects the ensemble response of phase-locked firing in single auditory-nerve fibers to sustained signals. Consequently, neural response properties such as adaptation and recovery from adaptation can be observed. In this study, ANN responses to 800-Hz, 100-ms tones presented at 10-30-dB SL were recorded using bipolar platinum-iridium electrodes placed on the auditory nerve of the cat. The cat ANN adaptation properties were determined and fit to the equation: A(tp) = Yre(-tp/tau Ar) + Yse(-tp/tau As) + Ass. The rapid time constant of adaptation (tau Ar) was invariant across stimulus level, with a mean value of 4.8 (+/- 2.1) ms. The short-term time constant (tau As) decreased approximately 21 ms for each 10-dB increase in probe amplitude. The mean tau As was 116 ms at 10 dB SL, 83.2 ms at 20 dB SL, and 73.5 ms at 30 dB SL. The ANN recovery from adaptation data was analyzed and fit to the equation: A(delta t) = Amax - Yre(-delta t/tau Rr) - Yse(-delta t/tau Rs). Here, tau Rr, the rapid time constant of recovery, and tau Rs, the short-term time constant, were independent of masker intensity in the studied range, with values of 16.2(+/- 9.8) and 125(+/- 50.1) ms, respectively. The results of this study indicate that ANN time constants are comparable to those measured for single units and that the adaptation behavior of phase-locked and nonphase-locked activity appears to be similar.     

Monaural and interaural intensity discrimination: level effects and the "binaural advantage"

This study examined whether the level effects seen in monaural intensity discrimination (Weber's law and the "near miss") in a two-interval task are also observed in discrimination of interaural intensity differences (IIDs) in a single-interval task. Both tasks were performed for various standard levels of 4-kHz pure tones and broadband noise. The Weber functions (10 log deltaI/I versus I in dB) in the monaural and binaural conditions were parallel. For noise, the Weber functions had slopes close to zero (Weber's law) while the Weber functions for the tones had a mean slope of -0.089 (near miss). The near miss for the monaural and binaural tasks with tones was eliminated when a high-pass masker was gated with the listening intervals. The near-miss was also observed for 250- and 1000-Hz tones in the binaural task despite overall decreased sensitivity to changes in IID at 1000 Hz. The binaural thresholds showed a small (about 2-dB) advantage over monaural thresholds only in the broadband noise conditions. More important, however, is the fact that the level effects seen monaurally are also seen binaurally. This suggests that the basic mechanisms responsible for Weber's law and the near miss are common to monaural and binaural processing.