Intralaboratory Repeatability of Residual Stress Determined by the Slitting Method

This paper presents repeated slitting method measurements of the residual stress versus depth profile through the thickness of identically prepared samples, which were made to assess repeatability of the method. Measurements were made in five 17.8 mm thick blocks cut from a single plate of 316L stainless steel which had been uniformly laser peened to induce a deep residual stress field. Typical slitting method techniques were employed with a single metallic foil strain gage on the back face of the coupon and incremental cutting by wire EDM. Measured residual stress profiles were analyzed to assess variability of residual stress as a function of depth from the surface. The average depth profile had a maximum magnitude of −668 MPa at the peened surface. The maximum variability also occurred at the surface and had a standard deviation of 15 MPa and an absolute maximum deviation of 26 MPa. Since measured residual stress exceeded yield strength of the untreated plate, microhardness versus depth profiling and elastic–plastic finite element analysis were combined to bound measurement error from inelastic deformation.     

Improvements in Residual Stress Measurement by the Incremental Centre Hole Drilling Technique

This paper presents results which advance and improve the usefulness, accuracy and efficiency of incremental centre hole drilling as a method of measuring near surface residual stress fields. Particular emphasis is placed on providing optimal values for the number of drilling step increments to be used and their corresponding size. Guidelines on the optimal values for the number and size of steps to use during measurements are presented for various ratios of hole radius to strain gauge rosette radius in the form of tabulated data. These guidelines are subsequently incorporated into a new data analysis program which permits very near surface residual stress fields to be accurately determined in real components. The benefits of the new approach are highlighted by reporting the results of measurements made on three industrial components, each of which has been subjected to a well-known engineering process. These components are a shot-peened spring-steel, a friction stir welded aluminium alloy, and a titanium alloy subjected to three different machining processes. The results reveal that the improvements to the incremental centre hole drilling technique can provide measured residual stresses from depths ranging from about 10 m to 1 mm.     

Residual Stress Analysis of Orthotropic Materials Using Integrated Digital Image Correlation

Measuring residual stress in an orthotropic material is a difficult task due to the complex behavior of the material. Recently, two different approaches based on Smith’s simplified real value formulation and the general solution developed by Lekhnitskii have been proposed. Both solutions assume the measurement of the displacement field via interferometric optical methods and estimate stress values through solving an inverse problem. However, the high sensitivity to vibrations of interferometric techniques makes their use difficult outside optical laboratories; standard Digital Image Correlation could be used, but its low sensitivity and relatively high standard deviation of displacements severely affect the reliability of estimates. In this work we propose to integrate the residual stress displacement functions related to orthotropic materials into the shape functions of Digital Image Correlation. This makes it possible overcome most of the problems related to low sensitivity and large standard deviation because a single large patch can be used for the measurement, thus providing an accurate and reliable algoritm for the measurement of residual stress.     

夹层全息干涉法的残余应力测试

本文用夹层全息干涉法做了模拟残余应力的标定实验,测试了焊缝、铸件的残余应力,并且利用数值方法进行了定量分析,实验结果与理论值比较吻合。     

Residual Stress Determination Using Hole Drilling and 3D Image Correlation

In recent years, the hole drilling method for determining residual stresses has been implemented with optical methods such as holographic interferometry and ESPI to overcome certain limitations of the strain rosette version of hole drilling. Although offering advantages, the interferometric methods require vibration isolation, a significant drawback to their use outside of the laboratory. In this study, a 3D image correlation approach was used to measure micron-sized surface displacements caused by the localized stress relief associated with hole drilling. Residual stresses were then found from the displacements using non-dimensional relations previously derived by finite element analysis. A major advantage of image correlation is that it does not require interferometric vibration isolation. Experiments were performed to check the ability of this new approach for uniaxial and equi-biaxial states of stress. Stresses determined by the approach were in good agreement with computed values and those determined by hole drilling using holographic interferometry.     

残余应力分析方法比较:X射线衍射法与应力释放法

残余应力分析方法主要有衍射法、应力释放法和声、光、磁等方法。其中,X射线衍射法与应力释放中的钻孔技术与理论最为成熟,应用最广。在应力均匀且数值较小时,两者可以给出相互接近的结果。然而当样品微小且微观结构复杂时,两者给出的结果会有明显的差异。本文利用上述两种方法对同一纯铜样品表面的残余应力进行分析,对比分析结果并讨论了相关的影响因素。我们对X射线衍射法与环芯法的适用性进行了讨论:前者适用于晶体材料的无损检测,而后者更能反映当前应力水平。此外,对方法的选用需要考虑应力测试的目的。     

利用钻孔法测定残余应力问题

钻孔法是测量残余应力的一个重要方法。本文就有关文献所提供的A、B值进行分析和比较。对试验中由于贴片钻孔所造成的偏差提出了修正公式。此公式使用简便,经验算,误差在10％以内。     

钻孔法测量残余应力过程中钻孔附加应变

本文叙述了钻孔法测量残余应力过程中的附加应变.研究应力水平对附加应变的影响是在单向应力条件下进行的,结果表明,钻孔条件、材料状态以及残余应力达到一定值时,附加应变为零.     

钻孔法测量残余应力过程中钻孔附加应变的研究（Ⅱ）

本文应用弹塑性理论研究了被测试样的屈服强度、应力场对钻孔法测量残余应力过程中钻孔附加应变的影响,使用简化的理论模型推导了低速旋转钻头钻孔产生附加应变的一般表达式.结果表明钻孔引入的附加应变与被测试样的原始残余应力状态有关,随应力水平增加而增大,在压应力减小到某一临界值σ时,钻孔附加应变为零。在 Ly12铝合金上的实验测量结果与理论结果一致。     

钻孔法测量残余应力中几个问题的探讨

本文针对钻孔法测量残余应力中一些不能用“释放”理论解释的问题,通过对钻孔法基本测量原理的分析和与其它传统电测方法对比,认为常用于测量残余应力的电测方法中钻孔法应定义为“干扰法”,切条法和套孔法为“释放法”,Sach＇s镗削法则为“干扰-释放法”.根据实验结果推荐公式=(λ-1)~(1/2)为预测钻孔深度的经验公式.同时应用“干扰”理论分析了压痕法测量残余应力的基本特性,提出压痕法与电测法结合将发展成为一种近似无损的测量残余应力的新方法.     

Surface Residual Stress Measurement Using Curvature Interferometry

Surface roughness plays an important role in the delamination wear caused by rough surface contact. A recent dislocation model analysis predicts that nano-scale contacts of surface steps induce nucleation of dislocations leading to pro-load and anti-load dislocation segregation near the contact surface. Such dislocation segregation generates a sub-layer of tensile residual stress in a much thicker layer of compressive residual stress near the surface. The tensile sub-layer thickness is expected to be about 50 to 100 times the step height. In order to verify the predictions of the model analysis, contact experiments are carried out on polycrystalline aluminum surface to determine the existence of the tensile sub-layer. The variation of the residual stress along the thickness direction is measured using a newly developed high sensitivity curvature-measurement interferometer. The residual stress distribution measured with sub-nanometer spatial resolution indicates that contact loading leads to formation of a highly stressed sub-layer of tensile residual stress within a much thicker layer of compressive residual stress. Implications of tensile residual stress for delamination wear are discussed.     

应用半权函数法计算界面裂纹的应力强度因子

应用半权函数法求解双材料界面裂纹的应力强度因子，得到以半权函数对参考位移与应力加权积分的形式表示的应力强度因子。针对特征值为复数λ的双材料界面裂纹裂尖应力和位移场，设置与之对应特征值为-λ的位移函数，即半权函数。半权函数的应力函数满足平衡方程，应力应变关系，界面的连续条件以及在裂纹面上面力为0；半权函数与裂纹体的几何尺寸无关，对边界条件没有要求。由功的互等定理得到应力强度因子KⅠ和KⅡ的积分形式表达式。本文计算了多种情况下界面裂纹应力强度因子的算例，与文献结果符合得很好。由于裂尖应力的振荡奇异性已经在积分中避免，只需考虑绕裂尖远场的任意路径上位移和应力，即使采用该路径上较粗糙的参考解也可以得到较精确的结果。     

Multi-Axial Contour Method for Mapping Residual Stresses in Continuously Processed Bodies

This paper describes a method for extending the capability of the contour method to allow for the measurement of spatially varying multi-axial residual stresses in prismatic, continuously processed bodies. Currently, the contour method is used to determine a 2D map of the residual stress normal to a plane. This work uses an approach similar to the contour method to quantify multiple components of eigenstrain in continuously processed bodies, which are used to calculate residual stress. The result of the measurement is an estimate of the full residual stress tensor at every point in the body. The approach is first outlined for a 2D body and the accuracy of the methodology is demonstrated for a representative case using a numerical experiment. Next, an extension to the 3D case is given and the accuracy is demonstrated for representative cases using numerical experiments. Finally, measurements are performed on a thin sheet of Ti-6Al-4V with a band of laser peening down the center (assumed to be 2D) and a thick laser peened plate of 316L stainless steel to show that the approach is valid under real experimental conditions.     

钻孔法测定焊接残余应力时的εp

用钻孔法测定焊接残余应力，孔边塑性变形对测量精度有很大影响。本文对孔边屈服过程进行了研究。克服了以往在误差修正方法中的不足，确定了塑性释放应变εｐ与主应力δ１、δ２和主方向角β的函数关系：εｐ＝ｆ（δ１、δ２、β），用以修正这塑变引起的测量误差，使得在二维应力状态下最大值近２０％的测量误差降至２％以下。     

Reconstruction of Residual Hoop Stress in Railroad Car Wheels Based on Saw Cut Measurements

Railroad car wheels develop residual stresses both in their manufacture and once in service. Knowledge of residual stress distribution and its variation over time is necessary for the prediction of wheel service life and possible catastrophic failure. It is vital for the safety of railway transportation. Although a theoretical solution is possible, it remains complex. Alternatively, the solution may be also obtained by using the experimental measurements assisted by the theory of mechanics. An approach known as “physically based enhancement of experimental data” formulated, subsequently developed and tested provides the most accurate results for the reconstruction of acquired residual hoop stress component in railroad car wheels. The paper presents the formulation, solution approach and results of the analysis performed on experimental data registered in investigations of the passenger and freight wheels during their saw-cutting process. The task has been formulated and solved as a nonlinear constrained optimization analysis. The discussion on the results precision has been included.     

The Equations of Motion of a Plate with Residual Stress

We consider a three-dimensional body which is at rest in a cylindrical configuration of height 2ε. We assume that the material is residually stressed and that it responds elastically to deformations from the reference configuration. Under appropriate assumptions on the data, and using weak-convergence methods, we determine the limit, as ε goes to zero, of the elasto-dynamic problem. The plate problem obtained, as in the case without residual stress, splits into two problems: one governing the in-plane displacement and the other determining the out-of-plane motion.     

热障涂层氧化残余应力大小与演化过程测试

热障涂层是一种应用广泛的提高高温部件工作效率的技术,在通常的涂层中,粘结层起到过渡和保护基体氧化的作用,在高温环境下,粘结层会发生氧化,而氧化产生的残余应力将引起热障涂层的损伤,表现为涂层的屈曲、起裂和剥落,导致热障涂层失效。研究测试和检测涂层的残余应力,对于评估涂层的安全性和寿命是非常重要的。本文用应力引起光学频谱位移的方法测试了空气等离子喷涂热障涂层中残余应力的大小及分布,并测试了残余应力的大小随氧化时间的演化过程。     

血管残余应力的一种确定方法

动脉无载荷状态下存在残余应力,分析血管壁在载荷状态下的应力分布必须计及血管壁的残余应力。本文通过检测动脉不同轴向伸长比条件下的压力—容积(p—V)数据,根据其p—V实验曲线的“S”型特征,提出了一种用反正切函数关系对试验数据点进行拟合,进而导得动脉管壁周向残余应力沿壁厚分布的方法。文章对10只正常大鼠颈动脉的分析结果表明,大鼠颈动脉周向残余应力沿血管壁厚呈单调上升趋势。残余应力在内壁处为负呈压缩状态,在外壁处为正呈拉伸状态,并且内外壁处应力绝对值大小基本相等,大约在2．5kPa左右。文章结果对进一步分析动脉管壁在载荷作用下的应力分布提供必要的信息。     

A New Procedure to Measure Near Yield Residual Stresses Using the Deep Hole Drilling Technique

Mechanical strain relief techniques for estimating the magnitude of residual stress work by measuring strains or displacements when part of the component is machined away. The underlying assumption is that such strain or displacement changes result from elastic unloading. Unfortunately, in components containing high levels of residual stress, elastic-plastic unloading may well occur, particularly when the residual stresses are highly triaxial. This paper examines the performance of one mechanical strain relief technique particularly suitable for large section components, the deep hole drilling (DHD) technique. The magnitude of error is calculated for different magnitudes of residual stress and can be substantial for residual stress states close to yield. A modification to the technique is described to allow large magnitudes of residual stress to be measured correctly. The new technique is validated using the case of a quenched cylinder where use of the standard DHD technique leads to unacceptable error. The measured residual stresses using the new technique are compared with the results obtained using the neutron diffraction technique and are shown to be in excellent agreement.     

膨胀管残余应力测试

膨胀管残余应力是影响膨胀管抗外挤、内压强度的重要因素之一。确定膨胀管的残余应力,测试方法至关重要。在常用测试方法中,机械测量法中的盲孔法体现出测试的优越性。应用盲孔法测试J55、K55两种规格膨胀管的残余应力,并根据实际测试的应力水平和实验误差,采用应变释放系数分级法对试验结果进行修正,以提高测试结果的精度。实验结果表明,膨胀管膨胀后存在环向、轴向的残余应力,且外表面总是压残余应力。将实验结果与仿真结果对比,误差满足工程要求,说明盲孔法测试膨胀管残余应力方便、快捷、准确、有效。