Initial noise predictions for rudimentary landing gear

A four-wheel “rudimentary” landing gear (RLG) truck was designed for public-domain research, with a level of complexity which is manageable in current numerical simulations, and a weak Reynolds-number sensitivity. Experimental measurements of wall-pressure fluctuations are allowing a meaningful test of unsteady simulations with emphasis on noise generation. We present three Detached-Eddy Simulations (DES) using up to 18 million points in the high-order NTS code. The first is incompressible with the model placed in the wind tunnel, as requested for the 2010 workshop on Benchmark problems for Airframe Noise Computations (BANC-I), intended for force and surface-pressure studies. The second and third are at Mach 0.115 and Mach 0.23, with only one wall, a “ceiling” analogous to a wing (but infinite and inviscid), and are used to exercise far-field noise prediction by coupling the Detached-Eddy Simulations and a Ffowcs-Williams/Hawkings calculation. The results include wall-pressure, and far-field-noise intensities and spectra. The wall pressure signals in the three simulations are very similar and, in a comparison published separately, agree well with experiment and other simulations. In the absence of experimental noise data, the attention is focused on internal quality checks, by varying the permeable Ffowcs-Williams/Hawkings calculation surface and then by using only the solid surface. An unexpected finding at these Mach numbers is an apparent strong role for quadrupoles, revealed by a typical deficit of 3 dB in the solid-surface results, relative to the permeable-surface results. The solid-surface approach has variants, related to the presence of the ceiling (a plane of symmetry), which can increase this error further; there is little consensus on the exact configuration of the solid surfaces in the Ffowcs-Williams/Hawkings calculation procedure. Tentative theoretical arguments suggest that a balance somewhat in favor of quadrupoles over dipoles is plausible at Mach 0.115. However, the scaling of sound with Mach number does not follow the eighth power, as quadrupoles do in theory: it is closer to the sixth power. This trend gives a muddled theoretical picture, but agrees with the scaling observed in experiments. If it is confirmed, this finding will complicate airframe-noise calculations, and prevent the attribution of noise to a given component of the aircraft. Progress in airframe-noise simulations appears real, but systematic grid-refinement studies and noise comparisons with experiment or other simulations have yet to occur, and the theoretical uncertainty is high.     

Vorticity dynamics and sound generation in two-dimensional fluid flow

An approximate solution to the two-dimensional incompressible fluid equations is constructed by expanding the vorticity field in a series of derivatives of a Gaussian vortex. The expansion is used to analyze the motion of a corotating Gaussian vortex pair, and the spatial rotation frequency of the vortex pair is derived directly from the fluid vorticity equation. The resulting rotation frequency includes the effects of finite vortex core size and viscosity and reduces, in the appropriate limit, to the rotation frequency of the Kirchhoff point vortex theory. The expansion is then used in the low Mach number Lighthill equation to derive the far-field acoustic pressure generated by the Gaussian vortex pair. This pressure amplitude is compared with that of a previous fully numerical simulation in which the Reynolds number is large and the vortex core size is significant compared to the vortex separation. The present analytic result for the far-field acoustic pressure is shown to be substantially more accurate than previous theoretical predictions. The given example suggests that the vorticity expansion is a useful tool for the prediction of sound generated by a general distributed vorticity field.     

快速随机粒子网格法的气动噪声预测方法

耦合随机湍流速度生成模型与线化欧拉方程技术,形成了一套具备模拟噪声在非均匀流场中传播能力的气动噪声混合预测方法。该混合方法的随机湍流速度生成模型采用了快速随机粒子网格法,为声传播模拟提供了可靠的源项。而噪声的传播计算选用线化欧拉方程,其空间离散采用9点5阶的色散保持关系格式,时间推进选用了高精度大时间步长的6级4阶龙格库塔格式,远场边界应用了无分裂形式的理想匹配层边界条件。首先,选用高斯脉冲传播算例对线化欧拉方程的时空离散格式、远场无反射边界条件进行了验证分析。然后,计算分析各向同性湍流的空间相关性验证湍流速度生成模型的可靠性。最后,基于已搭建的气动噪声混合预测方法进行了30P30N三段翼缝翼噪声的计算分析。计算分析可知:监测点处功率谱密度曲线、噪声指向性等计算结果与参考文献结果取得了较好的一致性。数值计算结果表明所建立的气动噪声混合预测方法能有效预测二维复杂构型的气动噪声问题。      

Flap-edge aeroacoustic measurements and predictions

An aeroacoustic model test has been conducted to investigate the mechanisms of sound generation on high-lift wing configurations. This paper presents an analysis of flap side-edge noise, which is often the most dominant source. A model of a main element wing section with a half-span flap was tested at low speeds of up to a Mach number of 0.17, corresponding to a wing chord Reynolds number of approximately 1.7 million. Results are presented for flat (or blunt), flanged, and round flap-edge geometries, with and without boundary-layer tripping, deployed at both moderate and high flap angles. The acoustic database is obtained from a small aperture directional array (SADA) of microphones, which was constructed to electronically steer to different regions of the model and to obtain farfield noise spectra and directivity from these regions. The basic flap-edge aerodynamics is established by static surface pressure data, as well as by computational fluid dynamics (CFD) calculations and simplified edge flow analyses. Distributions of unsteady pressure sensors over the flap allow the noise source regions to be defined and quantified via cross-spectral diagnostics using the SADA output. It is found that shear layer instability and related pressure scatter is the primary noise mechanism. For the flat edge flap, two noise prediction methods based on unsteady-surface-pressure measurements are evaluated and compared to measured noise. One is a new causality spectral approach developed here. The other is a new application of an edge-noise scatter prediction method. The good comparisons for both approaches suggest that the prediction models capture much of the physics. Areas of disagreement appear to reveal when the assumed edge noise mechanism does not fully define the noise production. For the different edge conditions, extensive spectra and directivity are presented. The complexity of the directivity results demonstrate the strong role of edge source geometry and frequency in the noise radiation. Significantly, for each edge configuration, the spectra for different flow speeds, flap angles, and surface roughness were successfully scaled by utilizing aerodynamic performance and boundary-layer scaling methods developed herein.     

基于物理机制模型的民机机体噪声预测

为实现民机总体方案快速评估与优化迭代设计,文章对民机增升装置前缘缝翼及后缘襟翼分别建立了基于民机噪声物理机制的预测模型,在此基础上搭建了机体噪声预测体系,开发了相应的预测工具UNICRAFT.为评估预测工具UNICRAFT的计算精度和效率,文章分别针对翼吊式布局,前缘缝翼/Fowler式襟翼形式,以及尾吊式布局,前缘缝...     

Computational aeroacoustic simulations of leading-edge slat flow

High-lift devices on modern airliners are a major contributor to overall airframe noise. In this paper the aeroacoustics of leading-edge slat devices in a high-lift configuration are investigated computationally. A hierarchical methodology is used to enable the rapid evaluation of different slat configurations. The overall goal is to gain a deeper understanding of the noise generation and amplification mechanisms in and around the slat, and the effects of slat system geometry.In order to perform parametric studies of the aeroacoustics, a simplified 2-D model of the slat is used. The flow and aeroacoustics are computed using a compressible, unsteady, Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes code. A robust buffer zone boundary condition is used to prevent the reflection of outgoing acoustic waves from contaminating the long-time solution. A Ffowcs Williams-Hawkings solver is used to compute the far field acoustic field from the unsteady flow solution and determine the directivity. The spanwise correlation length used is derived from experimental data of this high-lift configuration. The effect of spanwise correlation length on the acoustic far field is examined.The aeroacoustics of the slat system are largely governed by the geometry, especially in terms of slat overlap. We perform a study of the effects of trailing edge thickness, horizontal and vertical overlap settings for the slat on near field wave propagation and far field directivity. The implications for low-noise leading edge slat design are discussed.     

Shielding of Prof-Fan cabin noise by the fuselage boundary layer

Recent flight tests of a Prop-Fan (advanced technology turboprop) model mounted on a business aircraft revealed noise levels on the fuselage surface considerably lower than was expected from theoretical calculations and other test experience. In this paper the role of the fuselage boundary layer in shielding the surface from noise via classical refraction effects is examined. In order to study the physical phenomenon with minimum mathematical complexity, the boundary layer is modeled by concentrating its shear in an infinitesimally thin layer displaced an effective boundary layer thickness from a rigid wall. Incident energy is assumed to arrive in plane waves. For the Prop-Fan model at its design cruise Mach number of 0·8, the theory indicates a strong shielding effect. The shielding diminishes at lower flight Mach number and for larger sound wavelengths. At full scale, the shielding effects will be less than in model scale because the wavelength of the dominant noise is larger relative to the fuselage boundary layer thickness.     

New scaling laws for hot and cold jet mixing noise based on a geometric acoustics model

New scaling laws are presented for hot turbulent jet mixing noise outside the cone of silence. These account for mean flow field effects on sound radiation via an analytical high frequency approximate solution to Lilley's equation. Numerical calculations for sound radiation from sources in a cylindrical shear flow are used to test the validity of the approximation. The proposed scaling laws yield an excellent collapse of jet noise measurements over a wide range of conditions. The resulting information has been incorporated into a jet mixing noise prediction scheme which, with appropriate modifications to the analytical high frequency approximation, can be applied both inside and outside the cone of silence. The prediction scheme for angles inside the cone of silence will be described in a subsequent paper.     

Relevance of sub-surface chip layers for the lifetime of magnetically trapped atoms

We investigate the lifetime of magnetically trapped atoms above a planar, layered atom chip structure. Numerical calculations of the thermal magnetic noise spectrum are performed, based on the exact magnetic Green function and multi layer reflection coefficients. We have performed lifetime measurements where the center of a side guide trap is laterally shifted with respect to the current carrying wire using additional bias fields. Comparing the experiment to theory, we find a fair agreement and demonstrate that for a chip whose topmost layer is metallic, the magnetic noise depends essentially on the thickness of that layer, as long as the layers below have a much smaller conductivity; essentially the same magnetic noise would be obtained with a metallic membrane suspended in vacuum. Based on our theory we give general scaling laws of how to reduce the effect of surface magnetic noise on the trapped atoms.     

Onsager Relations and Eulerian Hydrodynamic Limit for Systems with Several Conservation Laws

We present the derivation of the hydrodynamic limit under Eulerian scaling for a general class of one-dimensional interacting particle systems with two or more conservation laws. Following Yau's relative entropy method it turns out that in case of more than one conservation laws, in order that the system exhibit hydrodynamic behaviour, some particular identities reminiscent of Onsager's reciprocity relations must hold. We check validity of these identities whenever a stationary measure with product structure exists. It also follows that, as a general rule, the equilibrium thermodynamic entropy (as function of the densities of the conserved variables) is a globally convex Lax entropy of the hyperbolic systems of conservation laws arising as hydrodynamic limit. As concrete examples we also present a number of models modeling deposition (or domain growth) phenomena. The Onsager relations arising in the context of hydrodynamic limits under hyperbolic scaling seem to be novel. The fact that equilibrium thermodynamic entropy is Lax entropy for the arising Euler equations was noticed earlier in the context of Hamiltonian systems with weak noise, see ref. 7.     

Application of frequency-domain linearized Euler solutions to the prediction of aft fan tones and comparison with experimental measurements on model scale turbofan exhaust nozzles

Although it is widely accepted that aircraft noise needs to be further reduced, there is an equally important, on-going requirement to accurately predict the strengths of all the different aircraft noise sources, not only to ensure that a new aircraft is certifiable and can meet the ever more stringent local airport noise rules but also to prioritize and apply appropriate noise source reduction technologies at the design stage. As the bypass ratio of aircraft engines is increased - in order to reduce fuel consumption, emissions and jet mixing noise - the fan noise that radiates from the bypass exhaust nozzle is becoming one of the loudest engine sources, despite the large areas of acoustically absorptive treatment in the bypass duct. This paper addresses this ‘aft fan’ noise source, in particular the prediction of the propagation of fan noise through the bypass exhaust nozzle/jet exhaust flow and radiation out to the far-field observer. The proposed prediction method is equally applicable to fan tone and fan broadband noise (and also turbine and core noise) but here the method is validated with measured test data using simulated fan tones. The measured data had been previously acquired on two model scale turbofan engine exhausts with bypass and heated core flows typical of those found in a modern high bypass engine, but under static conditions (i.e. no flight simulation). The prediction method is based on frequency-domain solutions of the linearized Euler equations in conjunction with perfectly matched layer equations at the inlet and far-field boundaries using high-order finite differences. The discrete system of equations is inverted by the parallel sparse solver MUMPS. Far-field predictions are carried out by integrating Kirchhoff's formula in frequency domain. In addition to the acoustic modes excited and radiated, some non-acoustic waves within the cold stream-ambient shear layer are also captured by the computations at some flow and excitation frequencies. By extracting phase speed information from the near-field pressure solution, these non-acoustic waves are shown to be convective Kelvin-Helmholtz instability waves. Strouhal numbers computed along the shear layer, based on the local momentum thickness also confirm this in accordance with Michalke's instability criterion for incompressible round jets with a similar shear layer profile. Comparisons of the computed far-field results with the measured acoustic data reveal that, in general, the solver predicts the peak sound levels well when the farfield is dominated by the in-duct target mode (the target mode being the one specified to the in-duct mode generator). Calculations also show that the agreement can be considerably improved when the non-target modes are also included, despite their low in-duct levels. This is due to the fact that each duct mode has its own distinct directionality and a non-target low level mode may become dominant at angles where the higher-level target mode is directionally weak. The overall agreement between the computations and experiment strongly suggests that, at least for the range of mean flows and acoustic conditions considered, the physical aeroacoustic radiation processes are fully captured through the frequency-domain solutions to the linearized Euler equations and hence this could form the basis of a reliable aircraft noise prediction method.     

Asymptotic scaling laws for imploding thin fluid shells

Scaling laws governing implosions of thin shells in converging flows are established by analyzing the implosion trajectories in the (A,M) parametric plane, where A is the in-flight aspect ratio, and M is the implosion Mach number. Three asymptotic branches, corresponding to three implosion phases, are identified for each trajectory in the limit of A,M >1. It is shown that there exists a critical value gamma(cr) = 1+2/nu (nu = 1,2 for, respectively, cylindrical and spherical flows) of the adiabatic index gamma, which separates two qualitatively different patterns of the density buildup in the last phase of implosion. The scaling of the stagnation density rho(s) and pressure P(s) with the peak value M(0) of the Mach number is obtained.     

A numerical study of transient flow around a cylinder and aerodynamic sound radiation

The fully 3D turbulent incompressible flow around a cylinder and in its wake at a Reynolds number Re = = 9×10⁴ based on the cylinder diameter and Mach number M = 0.1 is calculated using Large Eddy Simulations (LES). Encouraging results are found in comparison to experimental data for the fluctuating lift and drag forces. The acoustic pressure in far-field is commutated through the surface integral formulation of the Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings (FWH) equation in acoustic analogy. Five different sound sources, the cylinder wall and four permeable surfaces in the flow fields, are employed. The spectra of the sound pressure are generally in quantitative agreement with the measured one though the acoustic sources are pseudo-sound regarding the incompressible flow simulation. The acoustic component at the Strouhal number related to vortex shedding has been predicted accurately. For the broad band sound, the permeable surfaces in the near wake region give qualitative enough accuracy level of predictions, while the cylinder wall surface shows a noticeable under-prediction. The sound radiation of the volumetric sources based on Lighthill tensors at vortex shedding is also studied. Its far-field directivity is of lateral quadrupoles with the weak radiations in the flow and cross-flow directions.     

内部体积源作用下的圆柱壳内外声场特性

圆柱壳内各型体积源辐射噪声特性研究是声场建模和声场预报的前提.为了研究具有指向性的大尺度体积源特性对水下航行器结构内外声场的影响,本文结合薄壳理论、等效源和柱腔Green函数构造了体积源激励下的壳体振动耦合方程,研究了体积源表面声散射作用和指向性强弱对圆柱壳内外声场的影响.数值计算结果表明,体积源构造的准确性与其等效源位置有关,等效源配置在体积源几何中心与其结构表面之间0.4—0.6时,可以提高声场计算结果的准确性;大尺度体积源表面的声散射作用会导致壳体内部声场结构发生改变,内声场声腔共振峰发生偏移,并且在部分频段引起较强的声透射现象;此外,体积源指向性变化对壳体内外声场强弱影响较小,其显著作用表现在改变了外辐射声场的远场指向性.该研究结果对噪声预报和控制有一定的参考价值.     

二维平行桨涡干扰气动噪声特性分析

深入理解桨-涡干扰脉冲噪声特性对其噪声的控制具有重要意义。采用气动噪声直接法对低马赫数条件下的二维平行桨-涡干扰气动噪声进行了数值计算,分析了噪声的产生机理和传播、衰减规律。结果表明:当旋涡接近和经过翼型前缘时,翼型前缘附近压强发生强度不同的两次突变,导致翼型气动力变化的同时,向外辐射产生具有偶极子指向性的脉冲声波,其中较弱的一次压强突变能更有效率地辐射声波;通过对4种不同来流速度的声场进行分析,发现上、下远场声压峰值和传播距离成反比,和来流速度的三次方与升力系数波动幅值之积成正比,由此得出了远场声压峰值计算公式,为桨-涡干扰远场声压的预测提供了另一种途径。      

Scaling for the ensemble statistics prediction of a random system subjected to harmonic excitations

This paper is concerned with the ensemble statistics of the dynamic responses of a random system subjected to harmonic excitations. Random point process theory is employed to derive general scaling laws with the Gaussian orthogonal ensemble assumption about the system natural frequencies. A scaled model is built to simulate the high-frequency vibrations of the original system. Specific forms of the scaling laws are presented for a mass-loaded plate regarding the scaling factors for the structural parameters. The ensemble statistics predicted from the scaled model are compared favorably with those obtained from the original system.     

A statistical model for evaluation and prediction of the noise exposure in a construction equipment area

A statistical model for evaluating and predicting the equivalent noise level and the noise exposure at a working area was made. The method is based on the statistical theory of regression analysis. The results are expressed as a functional expansion and the stochastic models that give the solution to the problem are confidence zones and prediction zones of noise, which are valid in every similar case.     

Low Mach number analysis of idealized thermoacoustic engines with numerical solution

A model of an idealized thermoacoustic engine is formulated, coupling nonlinear flow and heat exchange in the heat exchangers and stack with a simple linear acoustic model of the resonator and load. Correct coupling results in an asymptotically consistent global model, in the small Mach number approximation. A well-resolved numerical solution is obtained for two-dimensional heat exchangers and stack. The model assumes that the heat exchangers and stack are shorter than the overall length by a factor of the order of a representative Mach number. The model is well-suited for simulation of the entire startup process, whereby as a result of some excitation, an initially specified temperature profile in the stack evolves toward a near-steady profile, eventually reaching stationary operation. A validation analysis is presented, together with results showing the early amplitude growth and approach of a stationary regime. Two types of initial excitation are used: Random noise and a small periodic wave. The set of assumptions made leads to a heat-exchanger section that acts as a source of volume but is transparent to pressure and to a local heat-exchanger model characterized by a dynamically incompressible flow to which a locally spatially uniform acoustic pressure fluctuation is superimposed.     

Measuring surface pressure with far field acoustics

This paper presents measurements of the wavenumber frequency spectrum of wall pressure fluctuations under a turbulent boundary layer made using sound radiated from hydrodynamically smooth ridges in the surface. The measurements also serve as a test of the scattering theory of roughness noise. The radiated sound reveals a cut through the full three-dimensional wavenumber frequency spectrum of the wall pressure at the wavenumber of the surface. Since ridges can be made with very small wavelengths, this technique can be used to probe the structure of the wall pressure spectrum on scales far smaller than those that can be reached using conventional wall-mounted transducers. Furthermore, the method reveals the wavenumber frequency spectrum directly, without the need for multi-point measurements or the spatial Fourier transforming of data. Measured spectra bear a close similarity to Corcos’ and Chase's model forms, and confirm the applicability of the theory of roughness noise and its prediction of roughness noise directivity.