FORLI radiative transfer and retrieval code for IASI

This paper lays down the theoretical bases and the methods used in the Fast Optimal Retrievals on Layers for IASI (FORLI) software, which is developed and maintained at the “Université Libre de Bruxelles” (ULB) with the support of the “Laboratoire Atmosphères, Milieux, Observations Spatiales” (LATMOS) to process radiance spectra from the Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI) in the perspective of local to global chemistry applications. The forward radiative transfer model (RTM) and the retrieval approaches are formulated and numerical approximations are described. The aim of FORLI is near-real-time provision of global scale concentrations of trace gases from IASI, either integrated over the altitude range of the atmosphere (total columns) or vertically resolved. To this end, FORLI uses precalculated table of absorbances. At the time of writing three gas-specific versions of this algorithm have been set up: FORLI-CO, FORLI-O₃ and FORLI-HNO₃. The performances of each are reviewed and illustrations of results and early validations are provided, making the link to recent scientific publications. In this paper we stress the challenges raised by near-real-time processing of IASI, shortly describe the processing chain set up at ULB and draw perspectives for future developments and applications.     

FY-3A/MERSI热红外通道在轨辐射定标精度评估

卫星资料辐射定标精度是其定量应用的关键因素。以METOP-A/IASI的高光谱探测资料为传递基准,利用同时星下点观测的交叉定标方法,对 FY-3A/MERSI热红外通道的在轨辐射定标精度进行了客观评估,并给出了亮温系统偏差的订正因子。从观测时间差异、卫星观测天顶角和方位角差异、以及目标均匀性四个方面,分析了交叉定标中所用主要匹配近似因子的不确定性。分析结果表明,目标均匀性是匹配误差的主要来源,偏差不确定性小于2%(当亮温偏差约为1 K时,不确定性<0.02 K),其他因素的影响可以忽略。一年多的样本统计及偏差分析结果显示,MERSI的观测亮温明显高于IASI,年平均亮温偏差约(3.18±0.34) K,月平均亮温偏差呈现季节波动特征,波动幅度约0.8 K。与相近时期敦煌场和青海湖地同步观测评价结果有非常好的一致性。初步原因分析推断,造成MERSI亮温偏高的原因主要有两个,一是星上黑体发射率被高估,二是光谱响应函数向大气窗区漂移,后者可能为主导因素。     

Development of a GPU-based high-performance radiative transfer model for the Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI)

Satellite-observed radiance is a nonlinear functional of surface properties and atmospheric temperature and absorbing gas profiles as described by the radiative transfer equation (RTE). In the era of hyperspectral sounders with thousands of high-resolution channels, the computation of the radiative transfer model becomes more time-consuming. The radiative transfer model performance in operational numerical weather prediction systems still limits the number of channels we can use in hyperspectral sounders to only a few hundreds. To take the full advantage of such high-resolution infrared observations, a computationally efficient radiative transfer model is needed to facilitate satellite data assimilation. In recent years the programmable commodity graphics processing unit (GPU) has evolved into a highly parallel, multi-threaded, many-core processor with tremendous computational speed and very high memory bandwidth. The radiative transfer model is very suitable for the GPU implementation to take advantage of the hardware’s efficiency and parallelism where radiances of many channels can be calculated in parallel in GPUs.In this paper, we develop a GPU-based high-performance radiative transfer model for the Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI) launched in 2006 onboard the first European meteorological polar-orbiting satellites, METOP-A. Each IASI spectrum has 8461 spectral channels. The IASI radiative transfer model consists of three modules. The first module for computing the regression predictors takes less than 0.004% of CPU time, while the second module for transmittance computation and the third module for radiance computation take approximately 92.5% and 7.5%, respectively. Our GPU-based IASI radiative transfer model is developed to run on a low-cost personal supercomputer with four GPUs with total 960 compute cores, delivering near 4 TFlops theoretical peak performance. By massively parallelizing the second and third modules, we reached 364× speedup for 1 GPU and 1455× speedup for all 4 GPUs, both with respect to the original CPU-based single-threaded Fortran code with the –O₂ compiling optimization. The significant 1455× speedup using a computer with four GPUs means that the proposed GPU-based high-performance forward model is able to compute one day’s amount of 1,296,000 IASI spectra within nearly 10 min, whereas the original single CPU-based version will impractically take more than 10 days. This model runs over 80% of the theoretical memory bandwidth with asynchronous data transfer. A novel CPU–GPU pipeline implementation of the IASI radiative transfer model is proposed. The GPU-based high-performance IASI radiative transfer model is suitable for the assimilation of the IASI radiance observations into the operational numerical weather forecast model.     

A rubidium-stabilized ring-cavity resonator for optical frequency metrology: precise measurement of the D1 line in 133Cs

We have developed a ring-cavity resonator that can be used to measure the absolute frequencies of optical transitions with an uncertainty below 40 kHz. The length of the resonator is calibrated against a reference laser locked to the D₂ line of ⁸⁷Rb, the frequency of which is known with 6 kHz accuracy. We demonstrate the power of this technique by measuring the absolute frequencies of various hyperfine transitions in the D₁ line of ¹³³Cs. Our results agree with earlier measurements using the frequency-comb technique, and have similar accuracy. Measurement of the D₁-line frequency could lead to a more precise determination of the fine-structure constant. We also report a precise value of A=291.918(8) MHz for the hyperfine constant in the 6P_1/2 state.     

光谱匹配因子对GF-1/WFV时间序列交叉定标的影响分析

在轨运行的传感器辐射性能由于受到元部件老化、外太空辐射等因素的影响,会发生变化,通过传感器在轨定标可以及时追踪传感器在轨运行期间的辐射性能变化。利用Terra/MODIS(Terre卫星中分辨率成像光谱仪)参考,GF-1/WFV(高分-1号卫星视场传感器)传感器为目标,基于敦煌校正场的实测地表光谱数据,在考虑两传感器成像时刻的不同观测角度、光谱响应、大气条件和地表特性的匹配贡献的基础上,获得交叉定标光谱匹配因子,进一步得出WFV自发射后的时间序列交叉定标系数。以此辐亮度定标系数得到的表观辐亮度值与MODIS表观辐亮度值进行比对,开展光谱匹配因子对GF-1/WFV定标系数的影响分析。分析认为：在不同波段,光谱匹配因子变化趋势总体一致,大于0.9的光谱匹配因子比重分别为53.1%,75%,81.2%和93.8%;辐亮度定标系数的时间序列变化趋势与光谱匹配因子的时间变化趋势呈现负相关;匹配因子越接近1,两传感器辐亮度值的相对偏差越小。     

成像光谱仪星上定标技术

成像光谱仪是同时获取地物图像和光谱信息的新一代光学遥感仪器。星上定标是成像光谱仪光谱图像数据定量化应用的基础。本文阐述了成像光谱仪星上定标的原理,按照星上定标采用的参考标准对星上定标技术进行了分类,详细介绍了星上辐射定标和光谱定标技术,并展望了成像光谱仪未来发展趋势。绝对辐射定标已经成为成像光谱仪星上定标的基本要求,太阳将逐步代替星上标准灯成为绝对辐射标准。基于不同参考标准的定标方法的综合应用将使星上定标精度和可靠性大大提高。随着定标精度的进一步提高,地面光谱定标装置将逐步空间化,基于探测器的星上辐射定标系统也将逐步得到应用。     

The influence of broken cloudiness on cloud top height retrievals using nadir observations of backscattered solar radiation in the oxygen A-band

The paper is devoted to theoretical studies of the influence of cloud inhomogeneities on cloud top height (CTH) retrievals based on top-of-atmosphere nadir reflectance observations in the oxygen A-band. A three-demensional (3D) Monte Carlo code is used to simulate highly resolved spectral measurements in the oxygen A-band. These synthetic radiances are used as input for the retrieval code SACURA based on asymptotic radiative transfer theory and the independent pixel approximation. The results show that the effect of cloud inhomogeneity on the derived CTHs is small. While we found considerable 3D effects in the reflectance of more than 30% compared to the independent column approximation, the spectral dependence of the difference was small. As SACURA is mainly based on spectral ratios, the retrieval results are hardly affected by the large absolute deviations. In consequence, SACURA is capable to retrieve CTHs with an accuracy of better than 1.5 km for overcast and also most partially cloudy cases.     

Calculation of accurate CO2 laser transition frequencies and their standard deviations

The paper is based on C¹²O₂ ¹⁶ rotational constants and line frequency data gained from laser frequency measurements performed recently. Equations for transition frequencies and their standard deviations have been derived. A list is presented containing accurate 10.4 and 9.4 μm line frequencies and their relative and absolute standard deviations; also wavenumbers and wavelengths are given for each line. For transitions usually observed in CO₂ lasers the relative standard deviations are on the order of a few megahertz, the absolute accuracy is about 25 MHz for the 10.4 μm band and about 18 MHz for the 9.4=μm band.     

三波段成像光学系统的辐射定标

系统的成像波段分别为近紫外（300 nm~380 nm）波段,可见光（380 nm~760 nm）波段和近红外（760 nm~1 100 nm）波段。通过搭建与该光学系统相对应的辐射定标装置,建立辐射定标数学模型,对已研制的三波段成像光学系统进行绝对辐射定标的研究。针对系统成像波段光谱范围较宽的特点,以分波段辐射定标方法对于测量得到的定标数据,采用最小二乘线性拟合法进行处理,对算法进行修正,再对定标数据进行处理。通过实验验证了2种方法的定标精度,结果表明:修正后的算法可得到精度更高的定标曲线,测量相对误差不超过5%,定标结果满足实际工程需求。     

The 2009 edition of the GEISA spectroscopic database

The updated 2009 edition of the spectroscopic database GEISA (Gestion et Etude des Informations Spectroscopiques Atmosphériques; Management and Study of Atmospheric Spectroscopic Information) is described in this paper. GEISA is a computer-accessible system comprising three independent sub-databases devoted, respectively, to: line parameters, infrared and ultraviolet/visible absorption cross-sections, microphysical and optical properties of atmospheric aerosols. In this edition, 50 molecules are involved in the line parameters sub-database, including 111 isotopologues, for a total of 3,807,997 entries, in the spectral range from 10⁻⁶ to 35,877.031 cm⁻¹.The successful performances of the new generation of hyperspectral sounders depend ultimately on the accuracy to which the spectroscopic parameters of the optically active atmospheric gases are known, since they constitute an essential input to the forward radiative transfer models that are used to interpret their observations. Currently, GEISA is involved in activities related to the assessment of the capabilities of IASI (Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer; http://smsc.cnes.fr/IASI/index.htm) on board the METOP European satellite through the GEISA/IASI database derived from GEISA. Since the Metop-A (http://www.eumetsat.int) launch (19 October 2006), GEISA is the reference spectroscopic database for the validation of the level-1 IASI data. Also, GEISA is involved in planetary research, i.e., modeling of Titan's atmosphere, in the comparison with observations performed by Voyager, or by ground-based telescopes, and by the instruments on board the Cassini-Huygens mission.GEISA, continuously developed and maintained at LMD (Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique, France) since 1976, is implemented on the IPSL/CNRS (France) “Ether” Products and Services Centre WEB site (http://ether.ipsl.jussieu.fr), where all archived spectroscopic data can be handled through general and user friendly associated management software facilities. More than 350 researchers are registered for on line use of GEISA.     

谱线漂移对星载成像光谱仪辐射测量精度的影响

分析了谱线漂移在地面辐射定标、星上辐射定标和在轨对地观测等环节对成像光谱仪辐射测量的影响,建立了从实验室辐射定标到星上辐射定标再到在轨对地观测全过程的辐射传递模型,并通过仿真分析求解了成像光谱仪入瞳处辐射测量不确定与谱线漂移之间的关系。结果表明,谱线漂移导致的辐射测量误差与谱线漂移量和入瞳辐亮度的分布梯度成正比;光谱带宽偏差对测量精度的影响程度较中心波长误差高一个数量级。对于可见近红外(VNIR)波段平均光谱带宽10 nm、短波红外(SWIR)波段平均光谱带宽20 nm的典型成像光谱仪,要保证谱线漂移引起的辐射测量不确定度小于6%,实现成像光谱仪在轨观测时入瞳处的辐射测量绝对精度优于10%,可见近红外波段中心波长偏差应不大于2 nm,光谱带宽偏差应不大于0.1 nm,短波红外波段中心波长偏差应不大于3 nm,光谱带宽偏差应不大于0.1 nm。     

Development and application of automated vicarious calibration system

In order to improve the frequency and precision of radiometric calibration, the automated vicarious calibration system(AVCS) is developed and deployed at the Dunhuang test site to perform vicarious calibration without the in situ manned measurements. The surface and atmospheric parameters are automatically collected by AVCS.An absolute radiometric calibration approach based on AVCS is proposed. Six successful calibrations of the Aqua Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer(MODIS) are conducted. The results are in good agreement with the on-board calibration system with all the relative differences less than 4%. It enables us to monitor the change of a sensor over long time scales.     

CO2 line intensity FTS measurements with 1% assumed accuracy in the 1.5-1.6 μm spectral range

Using Fourier-transform spectra and a multispectrum fitting procedure, 124 absolute line intensities of ¹²C¹⁶O₂ are obtained for the cold band 30011-00001 and the hot band 01131-01101 between 6460 and 6950 cm⁻¹. Vibrational transition dipole moments squared and Herman-Wallis coefficients are reported for each band. Cross comparisons made with previous experimental results and with data available in the HITRAN and Carbon Dioxide Spectroscopic Databank (CDSD), bring some confidence on the good level of accuracy of the present results. Motivated by the demanding needs of some atmospheric experiments dedicated to the survey of the carbon cycle, an additional evaluation of potential absolute line intensity measurement limit is also performed on recently published carbon dioxide absolute line intensity independent measurements. These are obtained in two different laboratories on the bands 30013-00001 and 30012-00001 both located in the 1.6 μm spectral window. It is shown that Fourier-transform experimental CO₂ line intensity determination is approaching the challenging required figure of about 0.3% accuracy needed for the survey of the atmospheric carbon cycle.     

Towards a new absolute frequency reference grid in the 28 THz range

We present a grid of absolute reference frequencies based on CO₂ (or N₂O) lasers locked to saturation peaks of heavy molecules. Frequency differences between OsO₄ peaks corresponding to adjacent CO₂ laser lines from P(12) to P(22) have been measured with 1 kHz accuracy. This set includes one ¹⁹²OsO₄ resonance whose absolute frequency is known with the same accuracy. This absolute grid is then used to provide an absolute calibration of the ν₃ band saturation spectrum of SF₆. We also find a 23 kHz average frequency difference between the CO₂ grid and the new OsO₄ grid which we interpret tentatively as a small extrapolation error from the R to the P branch frequencies of CO₂.     

On the use of principal component analysis to speed up radiative transfer calculations

Radiative transfer is computationally expensive. However, it is essential to many applications, in particular remote sensing retrievals. Principal component analysis of the optical depth and single scattering albedo profiles has been proposed as a possible method to help ease the computational burden. Here we show how the technique could be applied to a practical problem of CO₂ retrievals from high spectral resolution measurements of reflected sunlight in three near infrared bands. We obtain a speed improvement of more than 50 fold (compared to monochromatic computations), while reproducing the radiances to better than 0.1% accuracy.     

Detecting annual and seasonal variations of CO2, CO and N2O from a multi-year collocated satellite-radiosonde data-set using the new Rapid Radiance Reconstruction (3R-N) model

The NOAA polar meteorological satellites have embarked the TIROS-N operational vertical sounder (TOVS) since 1979. Using radiosondes and NOAA-10 TOVS measurements which are collocated within a narrow space and time window, we have studied the differences between the TOVS measurements and simulated measurements from a new fast, Rapid Radiance Reconstruction Network (3R-N), non-linear radiative transfer model with up to date spectroscopy. Simulations use radiosonde temperature and humidity measurements as the prime input. The radiative transfer model also uses fixed greenhouse gas absorber amounts (CO₂,CO,N₂O) and reasonable estimates of O₃ and of surface temperature. The 3R-N model is first presented and validated. Then, a study of the differences between the simulated and measured radiances shows annual trends and seasonal variations consistent with independent measurements of variations in CO₂ and other greenhouse gases atmospheric concentrations. The improved accuracy of 3R-N and a better handling of its deviations with respect to observations allow most of difficulties met in a previous study (J. Climate 15 (2002) 95) to be resolved.     

Absolute line intensities in the ν1 + 3ν3 band of 12C2H2 by laser photoacoustic spectroscopy and Fourier transform spectroscopy

Line intensities and self-broadening coefficients in the ν₁ + 3ν₃ band of ¹²C₂H₂ near 0.8 μm at room temperature were measured by means of both laser photoacoustic and Fourier transform spectroscopy. An experimental protocol has been developed to obtain absolute intensities from the photoacoustic measurements. Namely, the spectrometer was calibrated using water vapour line intensities available in Hitran 1996 [L. S. Rothman et al. (1998) J. quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 60, 665–710]. These photoacoustic line intensities were found to be on average 5% higher than corresponding measurements performed using Fourier transform spectroscopy, the accuracy of the latter being estimated to better than 4%. The accuracy of the photoacoustic intensities is discussed. Previous results from the literature [F. Herregodts, D. Hurtmans, J. Vander Auwera, and M. Herman (1999) J. chem. Phys., 111, 7954—7960] are revised.     

高光谱遥感器现场光谱定标精度验证方法研究

鉴于精确的光谱辐射定标精度验证对于高光谱遥感器的现场定标和数据应用非常必要,以SVC光谱辐亮度计为例,利用多波段辐亮度标准传递探测器和新型的光谱可调积分球参考光源,设计了一种高光谱遥感器光谱定标精度的验证方法。该方法利用新型光谱可调积分球参考光源在待测波段内分别输出光谱形状单调上升和单调下降的光谱辐亮度状态,通过光谱匹配技术,即平移改变SVC光谱辐亮度计的波长,分析比对MRSTD和SVC光谱辐亮度计测量辐亮度的相对偏差。比对结果为光谱定标验证精度优于±0.2 nm,辐射定标验证精度小于5%。     

Spektrallinienprofile des neutralen Argons im nahen infraroten Spektralbereich

The line profiles of ArI in the infrared spectral range have been investigated. The radiances of the plasma column has been recorded on the plates using the spectrograph PGS2. For selected ArI lines the spectral distribution of intensity has been measured. The electron concentration and temperature of the plasma has been determined on the basis of the measured half width and total intensity of the hydrogen Hβ line. Using this parameter (N_e, T) the profiles for selected ArI lines have been calculated and compared with those obtained from experiment. The agreement between the theoretical and experimental profiles is satisfactory.     

成像光谱仪绝对辐射定标技术研究

为了实现成像光谱仪绝对辐射定标,以高稳定均匀光源为基础,结合单色仪、大口径平行光管和标准辐射计,建立了一套绝对辐射定标系统。在绝对辐射定标系统上采用替代法标准辐射计标定出被测成像光谱仪入瞳面上的光谱辐射照度,通过获得被测成像光谱仪各像元的输出信号,计算得到各像元的光谱辐射照度响应度,从而实现成像光谱仪可见到远红外波段范围内的绝对辐射定标。实验验证成像光谱仪绝对辐射定标的不确定度优于5%。