6-Endo-dig versus 5-exo-dig: Exploring Radical Cyclization Preference with First-, Second-, and Third-row Linkers using High-level Quantum Chemical Methods

As an expansion upon Baldwin rules, the cyclization reactions of hex-5-yn-1-yl radical systems with different first-, second-, and third-row linkers are explored at the CCSD(T) level via means of the SMD(benzene)-G4(MP2) thermochemical protocol. Unlike C, O, and N linkers, systems with B, Si, P, S, Ge, As, and Se linkers are shown to favor 6-endo-dig cyclization. This offers fundamental insights into the rational synthetic design of cyclic compounds. A thorough analysis of stereoelectronic effects, cyclization barriers, and intrinsic barriers illustrates that structural changes alter the cyclization preference by mainly impacting 5-exo-dig reaction barriers. Based on the high-level computational modeling, we proceed to develop a new tool for cyclization preference prediction from the correlation between cyclization barriers and radical structural parameters (e. g., linker bond length and bond angle). A strong correlation is found between the radical attack trajectory angle and the reaction barrier heights, i. e., cyclization preference. Finally, the influence of stereoelectronic effects on the two radical cyclization pathways is further investigated in stereoisomers of hypervalent silicon system, which provides novel insight into cyclization control.     

Rules for anionic and radical ring closure of alkynes

This work reexamined the stereoelectronic basis for the "favored attack trajectories" regarding the nucleophilic and radical cyclizations of alkynes. In contrast to the original Baldwin rules, the acute attack angle of a nucleophile leading to the proposed endo-dig preference for the formation of small cycles is less favorable stereoelectronically than the alternative obtuse trajectory leading to the formation of exo-dig products. For smaller cycles, this intrinsic stereoelectronic preference can be masked by the greater thermodynamic stability of the less strained endo-products. Unbiased comparison of competing cyclization attacks has been accomplished via dissection of the activation barrier into the intrinsic barrier and thermodynamic component via Marcus theory. Intrinsic barriers of thermoneutral reactions strongly favor exo-dig closures, in full accord with the greater magnitude of two-electron bond forming interactions for the obtuse trajectory. This analysis agrees very well with experimental observations of efficient 3-exo-dig and 4-exo-dig cyclizations predicted to be unfavorable by the Baldwin rules and with the calculated 3-exo-/4-endo-, 4-exo-/5-endo-, and 5-exo-/6-endo-dig selectivities in the cyclizations of carbon-, nitrogen-, and oxygen-centered nucleophiles. The generality of these predictions is confirmed by analogous trends for the related radical cyclizations where the stereoelectronically favorable exo-closures are also preferred kinetically, with a few exceptions where a large difference in product stability skews the intrinsic stereoelectronic trends.     

Synthesis of 1,2-disubstituted cyclopentenes by palladium-catalyzed reaction of homopropargyl-substituted dicarbonyl compounds with organic halides via 5-endo-dig cyclization

Palladium catalysts with bulky biaryl phosphine ligands allow homopropargyl-substituted dicarbonyl compounds to undergo intramolecular addition via a rare 5-endo-dig pathway. C-C bond forming reductive elimination follows the addition to introduce alkenyl and alkynyl as well as aryl groups by using the corresponding organic halides. The cyclization is versatile enough to be applicable to the synthesis of highly substituted dihydropyrrole and a fused tricyclic compound.     

Control of up to five stereocenters in a cascade reaction: synthesis of highly functionalized five-membered rings

Mukaiyama-Aldol and Prins reactions have been identified as highly efficient methods in C-C bond formation since they were discovered several decades ago. Since both reactions gave the same common intermediate, oxocarbonium, we intend to combine the two reactions into a domino process, which means the formation of multiple C-C bonds and stereogenic centers in one pot without isolation of any intermediates. We envisage that the domino reactions involving the Mukaiyama-Aldol reaction of silyl enol ether and acetal treated with Lewis acid (TiBr4) will produce an oxonium intermediate which upon trapping by an alkene functionality in an intramolecular Prins cyclization will generate the cyclopentyl ring system.     

5-endo-dig radical cyclizations: "the poor cousins" of the radical cyclizations family

Kinetics and thermodynamics of 5-endo-dig radical cyclizations were studied using a combination of DFT computations and Marcus theory. When the reactant is stabilized by conjugation of the radical center with the bridge pi-system, the cyclization starts with reorientation of the radical orbital needed to reach the in-plane acetylene pi-orbital in the bond-forming step. This reorientation leads to loss of the above conjugative stabilization, increases the activation energy, and renders such cyclizations less exothermic. As a result, even when the radical needed for the 5-endo cyclization is formed efficiently, it undergoes either H-abstraction or equilibration with an isomeric radical. Only when the bridging moiety is saturated or when intramolecular constraints prevent the overlap of the bridge pi-orbital and the radical center, 5-endo cyclizations may be able to proceed with moderate efficiency under conditions when H-abstraction is slow. The main remaining caveat in designing such geometrically constrained 5-endo-dig cyclizations is their sensitivity to strain effects, especially when polycyclic systems are formed. The strain effects can be counterbalanced by increasing the stabilization of the product (e.g., by introducing heteroatoms into the bridging moiety). Electronic effects of such substitutions can be manifested in various ways, ranging from aromatic stabilization to a hyperconjugative beta-Si effect. The 4-exo-dig cyclization is kinetically competitive with the 5-endo-dig process but less favorable thermodynamically. As a result, by proper design of reaction conditions, 5-endo-dig radical cyclizations should be experimentally feasible.     

Spectroscopic and computational studies on the rearrangement of ionized [1.1.1]propellane and some of its valence isomers: the key role of vibronic coupling

The [1.1.1]propellane radical cation 1(?+), generated by radiolytic oxidation of the parent compound in argon and Freon matrices at low temperatures, undergoes a spontaneous rearrangement to form the distonic 1,1-dimethyleneallene (or 2-vinylideneallyl) radical cation 3(?+) consisting of an allyl radical substituted at the 2-position by a vinyl cation. In similar matrix studies, it is found that the isomeric dimethylenecyclopropane radical cation 2(?+) also rearranges to 3(?+). The unusual molecular and electronic structure of 3(?+) has been established by the results of ESR, UV-vis, and IR spectroscopic measurements in conjunction with detailed theoretical calculations. Also of particular interest is an NIR photoinduced reaction by which 3(?+) is cleanly converted to the vinylidenecyclopropane radical cation 4(?+), a process that can be represented in terms of a single electron transfer from the allyl radical to the vinyl cation followed by allyl cation cyclization. The specificity of this photochemical reaction provides additional strong chemical evidence for the structure of 3(?+). Theoretical calculations reveal the decisive role of vibronic coupling in shaping the potential energy surfaces on which the observed ring-opening reactions take place. Thus vibronic interaction in 1(?+) mixes the (2)A(1)' ground state, characterized by its "non-bonding" 3a(1)' SOMO, with the (2)E' first excited state resulting in the destabilization of a lateral C-C bond and the initial formation of the methylenebicyclobutyl radical cation 5(?+). The further rearrangement of 5(?+) to 3(?+) occurs via 2(?+) and proceeds through two additional lateral C-C bond cleavages characterized by transition states of extremely low energy, thereby explaining the absence of identifiable intermediates along the reaction pathway. In these consecutive ring-opening rearrangements, the "non-bonding" bridgehead C-C bond in 1(?+) is conserved and ultimately transformed into a normal bond characterized by a shorter C-C bond length. This work provides strong support for the Heilbronner-Wiberg interpretation of the vibrational structure in the photoelectron spectrum of 1 in terms of vibronic coupling.     

A formal synthesis of martinelline via a combination of two types of radical reactions

A formal synthesis of martinelline has been accomplished via two types of radical reactions as the key steps. These are the radical addition-cyclization-elimination of an oxime ether carrying an unsaturated ester and a C-C bond formation through a radical 1,5-hydrogen atom translocation.     

Computational studies on the cyclization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the synthesis of curved aromatic derivatives.

Computational studies on the cyclization reactions of some polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were performed at the DFT level. Compounds C26H14 and C24H14, which show the connectivity of C60 fullerene fragments, were chosen as suitable models to study the formation of curved derivatives by six- or five-membered ring formation, upon oxidation to their radical cations. Four possible pathways for the cyclization process were considered: a) initial C-C bond formation to afford a curved derivative, followed by dehydrogenation; b) homolytic C-H cleavage prior to cyclization; c) initial concerted H2 elimination and subsequent cyclization; and d) deprotonation of the radical cations prior to cyclization. Computed reaction and activation energies for these reactions show that direct cyclization from radical cations (pathway a) is the lowest-energy mechanism. The formation of five-membered rings is somewhat more favourable than benzannulation. After new cycle formation, homolytic C-H dissociation to afford the corresponding cations is the most favourable process. These cations react with H* without barrier to give H2* Intermediate deprotonations are strongly disfavoured. The relatively low activation energies compared with carbon cage rearrangements suggest that ionization of PAHs can be used for the tailored preparation of nonplanar derivatives from suitable precursors.     

Consecutive carbon-carbon bond formation approach in tandem cyclization reactions

The conventional tandem cyclization reactions involve the formation of alternating carbon-carbon bonds, whereas the newly developed cyclization reactions involve the formation of consecutive carbon-carbon bonds, in which N-aziridinylimines have been utilized as geminal radical acceptor and donor equivalents in a single operation. This unprecedented tandem cyclization approach becomes feasible by the successful generation of 5- and 6-membered ring radicals by radical cyclizations of N-aziridinylimines. The same notion can be applied to the anionic cyclizations of N-aziridinylimines, thereby allowing anionic consecutive carbon-carbon bond formation. This approach has great synthetic potential, particularly for the construction of quaternary carbon centers, and it provides highly efficient routes for the synthesis of natural products.     

Regioselective Synthesis of 2-Trimethylsilyl-4H-pyran-4-ones from 1-Ethoxy(hydroxy)-5-(trimethylsilyl)pentenynones

Exclusive formation of 5-aryl-2-trimethylsilyl-4H-pyran-4-ones is accomplished by a regioselective cyclization of 2-aryl-1-ethoxy(hydroxy)-5-(trimethylsilyl)pent-1-en-4-yn-3-ones. This cyclization occurs in a 6-endo-dig mode through addition to the β-atom of the TMS substituted triple bond. The reaction was found to be general for a range of ethoxyenynones upon heating in glacial acetic acid and for analogous hydroxyenynones in diphenyl ether. Plausible mechanistic explanation and possible post-modifications of resulting pyranones are offered.     

Origin of the synchronicity in bond formation in polar Diels-Alder reactions: an ELF analysis of the reaction between cyclopentadiene and tetracyanoethylene

The origin of the synchronicity in C-C bond formation in polar Diels-Alder (P-DA) reactions involving symmetrically substituted electrophilic ethylenes has been studied by an ELF analysis of the electron reorganization along the P-DA reaction of cyclopentadiene (Cp) with tetracyanoethylene (TCE) at the B3LYP/6-31G* level. The present study makes it possible to establish that the synchronicity in C-C bond formation in P-DA reactions is controlled by the symmetric distribution of the electron-density excess reached in the electrophile through the charge transfer process, which can be anticipated by an analysis of the spin electron-density at the corresponding radical anion. The ELF comparative analysis of bonding along the DA reactions of Cp with ethylene and with TCE asserts that these DA reactions, which have a symmetric electron reorganization, do not have a cyclic electron reorganization as the pericyclic mechanism states. Due to the very limited number of cases of symmetrically substituted ethylenes, we can conclude that the synchronous mechanism is an exception of DA reactions.     

Rh(III)-catalyzed C-H activation of primary benzamides and tandem cyclization with cyclic 2-diazo-1,3-diketones for the synthesis of isocoumarins

A simple and efficient Rh(III)-catalyzed C-H activation and tandem intramolecular cyclization for the synthesis of isocoumarins has been developed. The protocol uses easily available primary benzamides and cyclic 2-diazo-1,3-diketones as starting materials. This reaction proceeds via C-C and C-O bond formation in a single reaction vessel, and the corresponding isocoumarins were obtained in moderate to excellent yields (58%–97%). The well established protocol showed high functional group tolerance, which provided an efficient and alternative route to isocoumarin backbone.     

Single‐Electron/Pericyclic Cascade for the Synthesis of Dienes

The highly efficient and diastereoselective synthesis of E dienes has been accomplished through radical cyclization of bromoallyl hydrazones. This methodology has been further extended to generate these products through a one‐pot condensation/radical cyclization/cycloreversion cascade from simple aldehyde starting materials in high yields (>75 %) and high diastereoselectivities (>95:5). Mechanistic investigations suggest that the cascade reaction proceeds through a cyclic diazene intermediate prior to the cycloreversion.     

Sequential amination/annulation/aromatization reaction of carbonyl compounds and propargylamine: a new one-pot approach to functionalized pyridines

A general one-pot synthesis of pyridines 4a-t from the reaction of dialkyl acyclic/cyclic ketones 1a-i, methyl, aryl/heteroaryl ketones 1m-r, and aldehydes bearing alpha-hydrogens 1s,t with propargylamine 2 is described. Gold and copper salts are efficient catalysts for the reaction of ketones with 2. The formation of the pyridines 4 is suggested to proceed through the sequential amination of carbonyl compounds followed by regioselective 6-endo-dig cyclization of the N-propargylenamine (N-propargyldienamine) intermediate 3(5) and aromatization reaction. Whereas the preparation of linear polycyclic pyridine 4i can be carried out by reacting cholestan-3-one 1i with 2, the angular polycyclic pyridine 4j has been obtained starting from cholest-5-en-3-one 1j. Selectivity of the reaction of polycyclic dicarbonyls 1k,l with 2 has also been investigated.     

Palladium-catalyzed synthesis of carbazoles from N-(2-halophenyl)-2,6-diisopropylanilines via C-C cleavage

The synthesis of 1-isopropyl-substituted carbazoles by the palladium-catalyzed dealkylative cyclization of N-(2-halophenyl)-2,6-diisopropylanilines is described. The reaction involves intramolecular C-C bond formation, coupled with the cleavage of a C-X bond and a C-C bond, and is proposed to proceed through the formation of a dearomatized intermediate.     

Pyrrolidine and piperidine formation via copper(II) carboxylate-promoted intramolecular carboamination of unactivated olefins: diastereoselectivity and mechanism

An expanded substrate scope and in-depth analysis of the reaction mechanism of the copper(II) carboxylate-promoted intramolecular carboamination of unactivated alkenes is described. This method provides access to N-functionalized pyrrolidines and piperidines. Both aromatic and aliphatic gamma- and delta-alkenyl N-arylsulfonamides undergo the oxidative cyclization reaction efficiently. N-Benzoyl-2-allylaniline also underwent the oxidative cyclization. The terminal olefin substrates examined were more reactive than those with internal olefins, and the latter terminated in elimination rather than carbon-carbon bond formation. The efficiency of the reaction was enhanced by the use of more organic soluble copper(II) carboxylate salts, copper(II) neodecanoate in particular. The reaction times were reduced by the use of microwave heating. High levels of diastereoselectivity were observed in the synthesis of 2,5-disubstituted pyrrolidines, wherein the cis substitution pattern predominates. The mechanism of the reaction is discussed in the context of the observed reactivity and in comparison to analogous reactions promoted by other reagents and conditions. Our evidence supports a mechanism wherein the N-C bond is formed via intramolecular syn aminocupration and the C-C bond is formed via intramolecular addition of a primary carbon radical to an aromatic ring.     

Electron transfer initiated heterogenerative cascade cyclizations: polyether synthesis under nonacidic conditions

[reaction: see text] Single-electron oxidation has been employed to initiate heterogenerative cascade cyclization reactions that form polyether compounds under essentially neutral conditions. The reactions proceed through mesolytic benzylic carbon-carbon bond cleavages of homobenzylic ether-derived radical cations followed by intramolecular epoxonium ion formation, leading to further cyclizations. Both oligotetrahydrofuran and tetrahydropyran structures can be prepared by altering substrate topography.     

Mapping the characteristics of the radical ring‐opening polymerization of a cyclic ketene acetal towards the creation of a functionalized polyester

Radical ring‐opening polymerization of cyclic ketene acetals is a means to achieve novel types of aliphatic polyesters. 2‐methylene‐1,3‐dioxe‐5‐pene is a seven‐membered cyclic ketene acetal containing an unsaturation in the 5‐position in the ring structure. The double bond functionality enables further reactions subsequent to polymerization. The monomer 2‐methylene‐1,3‐dioxe‐5‐pene was synthesized and polymerized in bulk by free radical polymerization at different temperatures, to determine the structure of the products and propose a reaction mechanism. The reaction mechanism is dependent on the reaction temperature. At higher temperatures, ring‐opening takes place to a great extent followed by a new cyclization process to form the stable five‐membered cyclic ester 3‐vinyl‐1,4‐butyrolactone as the main reaction product. Thereby, propagation is suppressed and only small amounts of other oligomeric products are formed. At lower temperatures, the cyclic ester formation is reduced and oligomeric products containing both ring‐opened and ring‐retained repeating units are produced at higher yield. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 47: 4587–4601, 2009     

Self-terminating, oxidative radical cyclizations: a novel reaction of acyloxyl radicals.

Acyloxyl radicals RC(O)O* (with R = alkyl, aryl) could be trapped through addition to cyclic and open-chain alkynes, where they were found to act as a donor of oxygen atoms. Mechanistically, this radical oxygenation proceeded through a transannular or intramolecular, respectively, radical cyclization cascade, which was finally terminated by release of an acyl radical RC*(O). The reaction led to stereoselective formation of cyclized products, which contained a carbonyl group at the former site of the alkyne triple bond.     

含茂基稀土金属有机络合物催化剂在有机合成中的应用

综述了含茂基稀土金属有机络合物催化下的不饱和烃（或其取取衍生物）转化反应及其在有机合成中的作用。重点阐述了含茂基稀土金属有机络合物催化的烯烃氧化，氢化环化；烯烃和炔烃的氢化硅化，1，5－或1，6－二烯或烯炔的氢化硅化／环化，氨基取代烯烃，炔烃，丙二烯等的氢化胺化／环化等反应在有机合成中的主要用途，这些反应在形成碳－杂原子键，碳－碳键，碳环和杂环等方面具有广泛的应用前景。讨论了这些反应的催化循环机制，区域稳定性，对映选择性，非对映选择性及其影响因素。