No adaptation in the amplitude modulation domain in trained listeners

The present study shows that on average, exposure to a 15 min, 5 kHz tone modulated sinusoidally in amplitude at 16 Hz with a 100% depth does not affect significantly amplitude modulation (AM) detection thresholds measured between 4 and 64 Hz when listeners are extensively trained to the AM detection task, with and without adaptor before data collection. These results are compatible with previous work given that a clear 6-dB adaptation effect was observed during the first pilot trials. However, the results reveal that adaptation effects are not robust, and suggest that the mechanisms underlying adaptation to AM must be reevaluated.     

Perception of suprathreshold amplitude modulation and intensity increments: Weber's law revisited

The perceived strength of intensity fluctuations evoked by suprathreshold sinusoidal amplitude modulation (AM) and the perceived size of intensity increments were compared across levels of a wideband noise and a 1-kHz tone. For the 1-kHz tone, the comparisons were made in quiet and in a high-pass noise. The data indicate that suprathreshold modulation depths and intensity increments, perceived as equivalent across levels, follow a pattern resembling Weber's law for noise and the "near miss" to Weber's law for a tone. The effect of a high-pass noise was largely consistent with that observed for AM and increment detection. The data suggest that Weber's law is not a direct consequence of the dependence of internal noise on stimulus level, as suggested by multiplicative internal noise models. Equal loudness ratios and equal loudness differences (computed using loudness for the stationary portions before and after the increment) accounted for the increment-matching data for noise and for the tone, respectively, but neither measure predicted the results for both types of stimuli. Predictions based on log-transformed excitation patterns and predictions using an equal number of intensity just-noticeable differences were in qualitative, but not quantitative, agreement with the data.     

Behaviors of cubic distortion product otoacoustic emissions evoked by amplitude modulated tones

Distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs) were measured using sinusoidal amplitude modulation (AM) tones. When one of the primary stimuli (f(1) or f(2), f(1)?< f(2)) was amplitude modulated, a series of changes in the cubic difference tone (CDT) were observed. In the frequency domain, multiple sidebands were present around the CDT and their sizes grew with the modulation depth of the AM stimulus. In the time domain, the CDT showed different modulation patterns between two major signal conditions: the AM tone was used as the f(1) or the f(2). The CDT amplitude followed the AM tone when the f(1) was amplitude modulated. However, when the AM tone acted as the f(2), the CDT showed a more complex modulation pattern with a notch present at the AM tone peak. The relatively linear dependence of CDT on f(1) and the nonlinear relation with f(2) can be explained with a variable gain-control model representing hair cell functions at the DPOAE generation site. It is likely that processing of AM signals at a particular cochlear location depends on whether the hair cells are tuned to the frequency of the carrier. Nonlinear modulation is related to on-frequency carriers and off-frequency carriers are processed relatively linearly.     

Potentials evoked by the sinusoidal modulation of the amplitude or frequency of a tone

Steady state responses to the sinusoidal modulation of the amplitude or frequency of a tone were recorded from the human scalp. For both amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM), the responses were most consistent at modulation frequencies between 30 and 50 Hz. However, reliable responses could also be recorded at lower frequencies, particularly at 2-5 Hz for AM and at 3-7 Hz for FM. With increasing modulation depth at 40 Hz, both the AM and FM response increased in amplitude, but the AM response tended to saturate at large modulation depths. Neither response showed any significant change in phase with changes in modulation depth. Both responses increased in amplitude and decreased in phase delay with increasing intensity of the carrier tone, the FM response showing some saturation of amplitude at high intensities. Both responses could be recorded at modulation depths close to the subjective threshold for detecting the modulation and at intensities close to the subjective threshold for hearing the stimulus. The responses were variable but did not consistently adapt over periods of 10 min. The 40-Hz AM and FM responses appear to originate in the same generator, this generator being activated by separate auditory systems that detect changes in either amplitude or frequency.     

Time course of adaptation and recovery of channels selectively sensitive to frequency and amplitude modulation

In a series of experiments we investigated the time course of adaptation and recovery of channels in the human auditory system selectively sensitive to frequency and amplitude modulation (FM and AM). We determined the rate of loss of sensitivity to modulation using sinusoidal frequency or amplitude modulation (SFM or SAM) of a 50 dB SL, 500-Hz pure tone carrier over a 30-min period. Adaptation stimuli were modulated at ten times the preadaptation modulation detection threshold, as determined immediately before the 30-min adaptation session. Modulation rates investigated were 2, 4, 8, 16, and 32 Hz. Long exposure to SFM always elevated thresholds for detection of SFM more than this exposure elevated thresholds for detection of SAM. Similarly, adapting to SAM always elevated SAM detection thresholds more than SFM thresholds. Loss of sensitivity during adaptation was relatively slow; asymptotic loss of modulation sensitivity took 20 to 30 min. The recovery of modulation sensitivity after cessation of the modulation component of the adapting stimulus was determined in a second experiment. Recovery was found to be rapid; most of the recovery occurred within the first 60 sec. Our evidence suggests that there exist two types of modulation-sensitive channels in the human auditory system--one selectively sensitive to amplitude modulation and the other to frequency modulation. They appear to have similar time courses for adaptation and for recovery.     

Coding of amplitude-modulated signals in the cochlear nucleus of a grass frog

To study the mechanisms that govern the coding of temporal features of complex sound signals, responses of single neurons located in the dorsal nucleus of the medulla oblongata (the cochlear nucleus) of a curarized grass frog (Rana temporaria) to pure tone bursts and amplitude modulated tone bursts with a modulation frequency of 20 Hz and modulation depths of 10 and 80% were recorded. The carrier frequency was equal to the characteristic frequency of a neuron, the average signal level was 20–30 dB above the threshold, and the signal duration was equal to ten full modulation periods. Of the 133 neurons studied, 129 neurons responded to 80% modulated tone bursts by discharges that were phase-locked with the envelope waveform. At this modulation depth, the best phase locking was observed for neurons with the phasic type of response to tone bursts. For tonic neurons with low characteristic frequencies, along with the reproduction of the modulation, phase locking with the carrier frequency of the signal was observed. At 10% amplitude modulation, phasic neurons usually responded to only the onset of a tone burst. Almost all tonic units showed a tendency to reproduce the envelope, although the efficiency of the reproduction was low, and for half of these neurons, it was below the reliability limit. Some neurons exhibited a more efficient reproduction of the weak modulation. For almost half of the neurons, a reliable improvement was observed in the phase locking of the response during the tone burst presentation (from the first to the tenth modulation period). The cooperative histogram of a set of neurons responding to 10% modulated tone bursts within narrow ranges of frequencies and intensities retains the information on the dynamics of the envelope variation. The data are compared with the results obtained from the study of the responses to similar signals in the acoustic midbrain center of the same object and also with the psychophysical effect of a differential sensitivity increase in the process of adaptation.     

Auditory processing of real and illusory changes in frequency modulation (FM) phase

Auditory processing of frequency modulation (FM) was explored. In experiment 1, detection of a tau-radians modulator phase shift deteriorated as modulation rate increased from 2.5 to 20 Hz, for 1- and 6-kHz carriers. In experiment 2, listeners discriminated between two 1-kHz carriers, where, mid-way through, the 10-Hz frequency modulator had either a phase shift or increased in depth by deltaD% for half a modulator period. Discrimination was poorer for deltaD = 4% than for smaller or larger increases. These results are consistent with instantaneous frequency being smoothed by a time window with a total duration of about 110 ms. In experiment 3, the central 200-ms of a 1-s 1-kHz carrier modulated at 5 Hz was replaced by noise, or by a faster FM applied to a more intense 1-kHz carrier. Listeners heard the 5-Hz FM continue at the same depth throughout the stimulus. Experiments 4 and 5 showed that, after an FM tone had been interrupted by a 200-ms noise, listeners were insensitive to the phase at which the FM resumed. It is argued that the auditory system explicitly encodes the presence, and possibly the rate and depth, of FM in a way that does not preserve information on FM phase.     

Stimulus-frequency otoacoustic emissions measured with amplitude-modulated suppressor tones (L)

Stimulus-frequency otoacoustic emissions (SFOAEs) are typically derived as the difference in sound pressure in the ear canal with and without a suppressor tone added to the probe tone. A novel variation of this method applies a sinusoidal amplitude modulation (AM) to the suppressor tone, which causes the SFOAE to also be modulated. The AM-SFOAE can be separated from the probe frequency using spectral methods. AM-SFOAE measurements are described for four normal-hearing subjects using 6-Hz AM. Because the suppressor modulation is at a higher rate, the AM-SFOAE technique avoids the confounding influence of heartbeat, which also modulates the probe tone.     

Comodulation masking release using SAM tonal complex maskers: effects of modulation depth and signal position

The purpose of this investigation was to examine two stimulus parameters that were reasoned to be of importance to comodulation masking release (CMR). The first was the degree of fluctuation, or depth of modulation, in the masker bands, and the second was the temporal position of the signal with respect to the modulations of the masker. The investigation began by demonstrating the efficacy of sinusoidally amplitude-modulated (SAM) tonal complex maskers in eliciting CMR. "Nine-band" maskers, 650 ms in duration, were constructed by adding together nine SAM tones spaced at 100-Hz intervals from 300 to 1100 Hz. The rate of modulation for each SAM tone was 10 Hz, and the depth of modulation was 100%. Using such maskers, it was shown that when the on-frequency SAM tone had a modulation depth of 100%, the threshold for a 250-ms, 700-Hz tone improved monotonically as the modulation depths of the flanking SAM tones increased from 0% to 100%. When the on-frequency SAM tone had a modulation depth of 63%, some listeners performed optimally when the flanking SAM tones also exhibited a modulation depth of 63%, whereas others performed best when the flankers had modulation depths of 100%. With regard to signal position, a typical CMR effect was observed when the signal, consisting of a train of three 50-ms, 700-Hz tone bursts, was placed in the dips of the on-frequency masker. However, when the signal was placed at the peaks of the envelope, an increase in masking was observed for a comodulated masker.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Generation of Transform-Limited Pulse Train in New Scheme of Harmonically Mode-Locked Er-Doped Fiber Ring Lasers

A new scheme of an amplitude modulated harmonically mode-locked Er-doped fiber ring laser is proposed, and the lasing characteristics are experimentally investigated. The transform-limited sech² pulses at the repetition frequency of 1.64 GHz are stably generated. The pulse width and spectral bandwidth are independent of both the amplitude modulated (AM) modulation signal frequency and the AM modulation depth.     

Auditory brain stem responses from human adults and infants: wave V tuning curves

Decrement in ABR wave V amplitude was measured in the presence of simultaneous tonal maskers. Probe stimuli were 1.0, 4.0, and 8.0-kHz third-octave-filtered clicks. Adults and 3-month-old infants served as subjects. The resultant amplitude-decrement functions for each tonal masker were fit with regression lines. The sound pressure level (SPL) required to reduce wave V to 50% of the unmasked probe amplitude was plotted for each masker to develop tuning curves. The tuning curves were quantified by calculations of tip-to-tail difference, Q 10, and SPL at maximum masker frequency (MMF). Tuning curves for adult and infant subjects were similar for the 1.0-kHz probe. For the high-frequency probes (4.0 and 8.0 kHz), smaller tip-to-tail differences and lower Q 10 values were observed for the infant subjects. Ranges of MMF level were similar across adult and infant subjects. For the 8.0-kHz probe, tuning curves from infant subjects consistently showed maximum masker frequencies which were lower than the probe.     

Temporal factors associated with cochlear nerve tuning to dual and single tones: a qualitative study.

The simultaneous presentation of a 10- and 10.86-kHz tone produces an 860-Hz cochlear nerve difference tone (DT) response in the gerbil which persists for the duration of the stimulus. Forward masking shows this response is generated by neurons sharply tuned to the stimulus frequencies. When compared with the DT response, the cochlear nerve compound action potential (CAP) to a single tone is smaller in amplitude, has a higher nonmasked threshold, and produces a less sensitive tuning curve (TC). Forward maskers can also produce amplitude enhancement of the CAP, but this was not observed for the onset portion of the DT response. The CAP TC is as sharply tuned as the TC of either the DT onset response or the entire DT response. A comparison was made of tuning of the DT response to the onset, the first half and second half of the 23-ms duration probe stimulus, using either a 5- or 15-ms masker-probe interval. An increase of the tip threshold of the TC to all three portions of the stimulus occurred as the interval was increased between the end of the masker and the midpoint of the portion of the stimulus under question. The 15-ms masker-probe interval produced sharper TCs.     

Across-critical-band processing of amplitude-modulated tones

Two experiments using two-tone sinusoidally amplitude-modulated stimuli were conducted to assess cross-channel effects in processing low-frequency amplitude modulation. In experiment I, listeners were asked to discriminate between two sets of two-tone amplitude-modulated complexes. In one set, the modulation phase of the lower frequency carrier tone was different from that of the upper frequency carrier tone. In the other stimulus set, both amplitude-modulated carriers had the same modulator phase. The amount of phase shift required to discriminate between the two stimulus sets was determined as a function of the separation between the two carriers, modulation depth, and modulation frequency. Listeners could discriminate a 50 degrees-60 degrees phase shift between the modulated envelopes for tones separated by more than a critical band. In experiment II, the modulation depth required to detect modulation of a probe carrier was measured in the presence of an amplitude-modulated masker. The threshold for detecting probe modulation was determined as a function of the separation between the masker and probe carriers, the phase difference between the masker and probe modulators, and masker modulation depth (in all conditions, the rate of probe and masker modulation was 10 Hz). The threshold for detecting probe modulation was raised substantially when the masker tone was also modulated. The results are consistent with theories suggesting that amplitude modulation helps form auditory objects from complex sound fields.     

On the mechanisms involved in the recovery of envelope information from temporal fine structure

Three experiments were designed to provide psychophysical evidence for the existence of envelope information in the temporal fine structure (TFS) of stimuli that were originally amplitude modulated (AM). The original stimuli typically consisted of the sum of a sinusoidally AM tone and two unmodulated tones so that the envelope and TFS could be determined a priori. Experiment 1 showed that normal-hearing listeners not only perceive AM when presented with the Hilbert fine structure alone but AM detection thresholds are lower than those observed when presenting the original stimuli. Based on our analysis, envelope recovery resulted from the failure of the decomposition process to remove the spectral components related to the original envelope from the TFS and the introduction of spectral components related to the original envelope, suggesting that frequency- to amplitude-modulation conversion is not necessary to recover envelope information from TFS. Experiment 2 suggested that these spectral components interact in such a way that envelope fluctuations are minimized in the broadband TFS. Experiment 3 demonstrated that the modulation depth at the original carrier frequency is only slightly reduced compared to the depth of the original modulator. It also indicated that envelope recovery is not specific to the Hilbert decomposition.     

Frequency modulation detection with simultaneous amplitude modulation by cochlear implant users

To better represent fine structure cues in cochlear implants (CIs), recent research has proposed varying the stimulation rate based on slowly varying frequency modulation (FM) information. The present study investigated the abilities of CI users to detect FM with simultaneous amplitude modulation (AM). FM detection thresholds (FMDTs) for 10-Hz sinusoidal FM and upward frequency sweeps were measured as a function of standard frequency (75-1000 Hz). Three AM conditions were tested, including (1) No AM, (2) 20-Hz Sinusoidal AM (SAM) with modulation depths of 10%, 20%, or 30%, and (3) Noise AM (NAM), in which the amplitude was randomly and uniformly varied over a range of 1, 2, or 3 dB, relative to the reference amplitude. Results showed that FMDTs worsened with increasing standard frequencies, and were lower for sinusoidal FM than for upward frequency sweeps. Simultaneous AM significantly interfered with FM detection; FMDTs were significantly poorer with simultaneous NAM than with SAM. Besides, sinusoidal FMDTs significantly worsened when the starting phase of simultaneous SAM was randomized. These results suggest that FM and AM in CI partly share a common loudness-based coding mechanism and the feasibility of "FM+AM" strategies for CI speech processing may be limited.     

Critical modulation frequency based on detection of AM versus FM tones

The ratios between the modulation index (eta) for just noticeable FM of a sinusoidally modulated pure tone and the degree of modulation (m) for just noticeable AM at the same carrier and the same modulation frequency were measured at carrier frequencies of 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 8 kHz. Signal levels were 20 dB SL and 50 dB SPL or 80 dB SPL. At low modulation frequencies, for example, 8 Hz, AM and FM elicit very different auditory sensations (i.e., a fluctuation in loudness or pitch, respectively). In this case, eta and m show different values for just noticeable modulation. Since both stimuli have almost equal amplitude spectra if eta equals m (m less than 0.3), the difference in detection thresholds reflects differences in the phase relation between carrier and sidebands in AM and FM. With increasing modulation frequency, the eta-m ratio decreases and reaches unity at a modulation frequency called the "critical modulation frequency" (CMF). At modulation frequencies above the CMF, the same modulation thresholds are obtained for AM and FM. Therefore, it can be concluded that the difference in phase between the two types of stimuli is not perceived in this range. At center frequencies below 1 kHz, where phase errors caused by headphones and ear canal presumably are small, the CMF is useful in estimating critical bandwidth.     

Detection of modulation of a 4-kHz carrier

To better understand the processing of complex high-frequency sounds, modulation-detection thresholds were measured for sinusoidal frequency modulation (SFM), quasi-frequency modulation (QFM), sinusoidal amplitude modulation (SAM), and random-phase FM (RPFM). At the lowest modulation frequency (5 Hz) modulation thresholds expressed as AM depth were similar for RPFM, SAM and QFM suggesting the predominance of envelope cues. At the higher modulation frequencies (20 and 40 Hz) thresholds expressed as total frequency excursions were similar for SFM and QFM suggesting a common mechanism, one perhaps based on single-channel FM-to-AM conversion or on a multi-channel place mechanism. The fact that the nominal envelopes of SFM and QFM are different (SFM has a flat envelope), seems to preclude processing based on the envelope of the external stimulus. Also, given the 4-kHz carrier and the similarity to previously published results obtained with a 1-kHz carrier, processing based on temporally-coded fine structure for all four types of modulation appears unlikely.     

Forward masking of amplitude modulation: basic characteristics

In this study we demonstrate an effect for amplitude modulation (AM) that is analogous to forward making of audio frequencies, i.e., the modulation threshold for detection of AM (signal) is raised by preceding AM (masker). In the study we focused on the basic characteristics of the forward-masking effect. Functions representing recovery from AM forward masking measured with a 150- ms 40- Hz masker AM and a 50- ms signal AM of the same rate imposed on the same broadband-noise carrier, showed an exponential decay of forward masking with increasing delay from masker offset. Thresholds remained elevated by more than 2 dB over an interval of at least 150 ms following the masker. Masked-threshold patterns, measured with a fixed signal rate (20, 40, and 80 Hz) and a variable masker rate, showed tuning of the AM forward-masking effect. The tuning was approximately constant across signal modulation rates used and consistent with the idea of modulation-rate selective channels. Combining two equally effective forward maskers of different frequencies did not lead to an increase in forward masking relative to that produced by either component alone. Overall, the results are consistent with modulation-rate selective neural channels that adapt and recover from the adaptation relatively quickly.     

Coding of the fundamental frequency in continuous interleaved sampling processors for cochlear implants

In this study the perception of the fundamental frequency (F0) of periodic stimuli by cochlear implant users is investigated. A widely used speech processor is the Continuous Interleaved Sampling (CIS) processor, for which the fundamental frequency appears as temporal fluctuations in the envelopes at the output. Three experiments with four users of the LAURA (Registered trade mark of Philips Hearing Implants, now Cochlear Technology Centre Europe) cochlear implant were carried out to examine the influence of the modulation depth of these envelope fluctuations on pitch discrimination. In the first experiment, the subjects were asked to discriminate between two SAM (sinusoidally amplitude modulated) pulse trains on a single electrode channel differing in modulation frequency ( deltaf = 20%). As expected, the results showed a decrease in the performance for smaller modulation depths. Optimal performance was reached for modulation depths between 20% and 99%, depending on subject, electrode channel, and modulation frequency. In the second experiment, the smallest noticeable difference in F0 of synthetic vowels was measured for three algorithms that differed in the obtained modulation depth at the output: the default CIS strategy, the CIS strategy in which the F0 fluctuations in the envelope were removed (FLAT CIS), and a third CIS strategy, which was especially designed to control and increase the depth of these fluctuations (F0 CIS). In general, performance was poorest for the FLAT CIS strategy, where changes in F0 are only apparent as changes of the average amplitude in the channel outputs. This emphasizes the importance of temporal coding of F0 in the speech envelope for pitch perception. No significantly better results were obtained for the F0 CIS strategy compared to the default CIS strategy, although the latter results in envelope modulation depths at which sub-optimal scores were obtained in some cases of the first experiment. This indicates that less modulation is needed if all channels are stimulated with synchronous F0 fluctuations. This hypothesis is confirmed in a third experiment where subjects performed significantly better in a pitch discrimination task with SAM pulse trains, if three channels were stimulated concurrently, as opposed to only one.     

Dead regions and pitch perception

The perception of pitch for pure tones with frequencies falling inside low- or high-frequency dead regions (DRs) was examined. Subjects adjusted a variable-frequency tone to match the pitch of a fixed tone. Matches within one ear were often erratic for tones falling in a DR, indicating unclear pitch percepts. Matches across ears of subjects with asymmetric hearing loss, and octave matches within ears, indicated that tones falling within a DR were perceived with an unclear pitch and/or a pitch different from "normal" whenever the tones fell more than 0.5 octave within a low- or high-frequency DR. One unilaterally impaired subject, with only a small surviving region between 3 and 4 kHz, matched a fixed 0.5-kHz tone in his impaired ear with, on average, a 3.75-kHz tone in his better ear. When asked to match the 0.5-kHz tone with an amplitude-modulated tone, he adjusted the carrier and modulation frequencies to about 3.8 and 0.5 kHz, respectively, suggesting that some temporal information was still available. Overall, the results indicate that the pitch of low-frequency tones is not conveyed solely by a temporal code. Possibly, there needs to be a correspondence between place and temporal information for a normal pitch to be perceived.