In vitro post-stenotic flow quantification and validation using echo particle image velocimetry (Echo PIV)

Echo particle image velocimetry (Echo PIV) presents itself as an attractive in vivo flow quantification technique to traditional approaches. Promising results have been acquired; however, limited quantification and validation is available for post-stenotic flows. We focus here on the comprehensive evaluation of in vitro downstream stenotic flow quantified by Echo PIV and validated in relation to digital particle image velocimetry (DPIV). A Newtonian blood analog was circulated through a closed flow loop and quantified immediately downstream of a 50 % axisymmetric blockage at two Reynolds numbers (Re) using time-averaged Echo PIV and DPIV. Centerline velocities were in good agreement at all Re; however, Echo PIV measurements presented with elevated standard deviation (SD) at all measurements points. SD was improved using increased line density (LD); however, frame rate or field of view (FOV) is compromised. Radial velocity profiles showed close agreement with DPIV with the largest disparity in the shear layer and near-wall recirculation. Downstream recirculation zones were resolved by Echo PIV at both Re; however, magnitude and spatial coverage was reduced compared to DPIV that coincided with reduced contrast agent penetration beyond the shear layer. Our findings support the use of increased LD at a cost to FOV and highlight reduced microbubble penetration beyond the shear layer. High local SD at near-wall measurements suggests that further refinement is required before proceeding to in vivo quantification studies of wall shear stress in complex flow environments.     

A model-based validation framework for PIV and PTV

The utility of particle image velocimetry (PIV) for measurement of velocity fields in many fluid flows is well established. This has created interest in overcoming difficulties with the technique when applied to increasingly larger fields of view where there exists a significant range of velocities and spatial velocity gradients are large. In this regard, a major deficiency with standard cross-correlation PIV is the inherent link between the density of vectors in the measurement field and the maximum measurable displacement. Several schemes exist to reduce this link. These iterative hierarchical/multiresolution schemes are strongly dependent on vector validation routines to remove spurious vectors. Here the design of a new framework for vector validation is described. This framework is general enough for use with both regular and irregularly spaced vector fields to make it applicable to particle image velocimetry (PIV), particle tracking velocimetry (PTV), and hybrid methods. It is based on the determination of a smoothed displacement field that robustly characterizes the measured field such that invalid vectors are attenuated more than valid vectors. In this particular study a thin-plate spline model is incorporated within an iterative regularized weighted least-squares routine to find a smoothed version of the displacement field that maintains pertinent velocity gradient information. The utility of the methodology is demonstrated for a complex flow profile containing four vortices where the valid displacement ranges from ?1/4 to +1/4 of the area of interest (AOI) dimension. Results indicate that this validation strategy can discriminate between valid and invalid vectors remarkably well over a range of parameter settings. In the example presented a flow field with significant velocity gradients and having a high number of invalid vectors (25%) is accurately validated.     

Stereoscopic PIV: validation and application to an isotropic turbulent flow

 A new stereoscopic PIV system to measure the three velocity components is developed and applied to grid turbulence flows. This system uses two CCD cameras coupled with an accurate cross-correlation calculation method. An experimental test (based upon three-dimensional displacements) has been carried out to demonstrate the capability of this process to locate the maximum of correlation, and to detect accurately the 3D displacements. Experiments in a well-established turbulent flow have validated the method for quantitative measurements and a comparison with LDV results showed a good agreement in terms of mean and fluctuating velocities. Combined PIV and stereoscopic PIV measurements on a turbulent flow revealed the need to the stereoscopic systems to measure accurate 2D velocity fields. It has been shown that an error of up to 10% in the velocity fluctuation measured by conventional PIV could be attained due to 3D effects in highly turbulent cases. Finally, the digital cross-correlation technique adapted to the determination of small displacements seems to be the most suitable technique for stereoscopic PIV. Received: 22 July 1997/Accepted: 27 January 1998     

Benchmark PIV database for the validation of CFD simulations in a transitional cavity flow

We present an experimental benchmark database for the transitional cavity flow. The database is obtained by planar Particle Image Velocimetry measurements at the median plane of the cavity model, for Reynolds numbers between 6300 and 19,000 based on the cavity height. A detailed uncertainty analysis of the experimental results is performed via the correlation statistics method for PIV uncertainty quantification and linear error propagation.The experimental results are compared to two-dimensional Reynolds-Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) numerical simulations with different turbulence models. It is shown that, when the standard k-ω turbulence model is employed, the discrepancy between numerical simulations and experimental results exceeds the uncertainty of the latter. Conversely, RANS simulations with the SST k-ω turbulence model agree well with the experimental data in terms of time-averaged flow properties; however, the turbulent kinetic energy results present significant discrepancies at all considered Reynolds numbers. The data presented in this paper is made available for open-access download via the 4TU.ResearchData repository with DOI: https://doi.org/10.4121/14061233.     

Development of fiberscope PIV system by controlling diode laser illumination

Because of the inherent small size of optical fiberscopes, they provide access and relative handling ease in given closed vessels, which are hardly equipped with extra windows for conventional flow visualization. The use of an optical fiberscope in conjunction with a conventional particle image velocimetry/particle tracking velocimetry (PIV/PTV) system without optimization can lead to degraded transmission of images. The present study proposes a processing technique to filter background noise contained within the coarse bundle image by subtracting the original image of the bundle as reference image. Additionally, efforts were made to increase the reliability of vector processing using particle streak images via judicious pulse interval and duration adjustments. As an applications test we measured classic jet flow using the developed system and using established conventional measurement techniques. Our tests confirmed that our fiberscope PTV system provides vector fields with sufficient accuracy.     

Limitation and improvement of PIV

In this second part of the paper, the Particle Image Distortion (PID) technique is described. It is proposed to overcome the limitations of conventional PIV due to the local deformations u/x, u/y, v/x and v/y in two-dimensional flows. Both simulation and experiment demonstrate that high accuracy and high spatial resolution are possible with this technique. The large time required to compute the cross-correlations, however, limits its wide applications at present.     

Limitation and improvement of PIV

The deformation of particle image patterns by strong velocity gradients and out-of-pattern motions is a major source of error for the PIV (Particle Image Velocimetry) technique. This deformation is investigated and its effect on conventional PIV techniques is quantified for 2D flows. Simulations and comparisons with independent experiments verify the results.     

基于BICC算法的PIV技术

对基于ＢＩＣＣ（ＢｉｎａｒｙＩｍａｇｅＣｒｏｓｓ－Ｃｏｒｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎ）算法的ＰＩＶ（ＰａｒｔｉｃｌｅＩｍａｇｅＶｅｌｏｃｉｍｅｔｒｙ）技术的原理进行了较详细的介绍．以封闭的正方形容器内的旋转流场为例，用计算机模拟检验了ＢＩＣＣ算法的可靠性，最后利用ＰＩＶ技术对阀腔内真实流场进行了测量．结果表明，ＢＩＣＣ算法能有效地进行图像粒子的识别，利用该算法可以得到精确的ＰＩＶ测量结果．     

三曝光三相关PIV技术研究

对不等间隔三次曝光单幅记录的PIV粒子图像,本文提出一和中三相关位移诊断方法,三相关函数有两个次大峰,且不对称地人布在最大峰两侧,本方法可同时获得位移值及判别位移方向,可有效解决位移方向二义性问题,对线性涡流模拟粒子图像,应用本方法进行粒子位移诊断,结果证实了本方法对含涡复杂流动速度方向判别的有效性。     

PIV error correction

 A non-post-interrogation method of reducing subpixel errors and eliminating spurious vectors from particle image velocimetry (PIV) results is presented. Unlike methods that rely on the accuracy or similarity of neighboring vectors, errors are eliminated before correlation information is discarded using available spatial and/or temporal data. Anomalies are removed from the data set through direct element-by-element comparison of the correlation tables calculated from adjacent regions. The result is a processing technique that yields a symmetric correlation profile representing the velocity at the boundary of the combined regions. This correlation based correction (CBC) technique greatly improves subpixel accuracy, and is highly robust to out-of-boundary particle motion, particle overlap, unmatched particle correlations, and electronic and optical imaging noise. Received: 22 June 1999/Accepted: 21 September 1999     

Development and validation of a reduced order history force model

The history force model accounts for temporal development in fluid gradients in the viscous region surrounding a particle in point particle methods. The calculation of the history force typically requires storing and using relative velocity information during the life time of the particle. For a large number of particles integrated over large times, history force calculation can become prohibitively expensive. The current work presents a new modeling approach to calculate the history force in which a decay function is applied to a stored cumulative value of the history force. The proposed formulation is equivalent to applying the same function obtained from a constant acceleration assumption to a running average of the acceleration within the memory time of the particle. The new force model is validated with experimental measurements of settling spheres at Reynolds numbers ranging from around one to a few hundreds and at density ratios from 1.2 to about 9.32. More validation work was carried-out with experimental measurements of oscillating spheres at different frequencies and amplitudes, as well as bouncing spheres at different Reynolds numbers and density ratios. The model shows very good agreement with the experiments of settling spheres and reasonable/good agreement with oscillating and bouncing sphere experiments. The proposed model significantly reduces the computational resources required to calculate the history force especially when large number of particles need to be integrated over long times.     

Local field correction PIV: on the increase of accuracy of digital PIV systems

Cross-correlation Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) has become a well known and widely used experimental technique. It has been already documented that difficulties arise resolving velocity structures smaller than the interrogation window. This is caused by signal averaging over this window. A new cross-correlation PIV method that eliminates this restriction is presented. The new method brings some other enhancements, such as the ability to deal with large velocity gradients, seeding density inhomogeneities, and high dispersion in the brightness of the particles. The final result is a method with a remarkable capability for accurately resolving small scale structures in the flow, down to a few times the mean distance between particles. When compared to particle tracking velocimetry, the new method is capable of obtaining measurements at high seeding density concentrations. Therefore, better overall performance is obtained, especially with the limited resolutions of video CCDs. In this paper, the new method is described and its performance is evaluated and compared to traditional PIV systems using synthetic images. Application to real PIV data are included and the results discussed. Received: 9 March 1998 / Accepted: 25 August 1998     

PIV for granular flows

 Particle image velocimetry (PIV) has been adapted for use in measuring particle displacement and velocity fields in granular flows. “Seeding” is achieved by using light and dark particles. The granular flow adjacent to a clear bounding wall is illuminated with a strobe, and the recorded images are analyzed using standard PIV techniques. The application is demonstrated by measuring convection rolls in a granular bed undergoing vertical oscillations. The PIV measured displacement is consistent with displacement of a marked layer of particles. Received: 29 January 1998/Accepted: 8 April 1999     

Evaluation of the performance of high-speed PIV compared to standard PIV in a turbulent jet

In this paper, a comparison between two particle image velocimetry (PIV) systems, one based on a standard cross-correlation charge coupled device (CCD) camera with pulsed laser and another using high-speed complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) camera with continuous laser is performed. The objective of the paper is to point out advantages and disadvantages of the two systems when computing large and small flow scale statistics. The comparison is performed on velocity measurements in the near and far fields of a circular water jet: on this flow several experimental data and empirical self-similarity laws are available for comparisons. The results show that both systems are suitable for measurements with a preference for the standard one when investigating small-scale statistics. This result depends on the lower number of effectively independent samples acquired by a high-speed system and on the higher noise levels of CMOS sensors in comparison to CCDs.     

Generation and visualization of volumetric PIV data fields

This review paper addresses the integration of advanced visualization techniques into the analysis of volumetric vector fields obtained by experimental measurement techniques such as holographic PIV, tomographic PIV, 3D PTV or defocusing PIV. The paper follows the idea of the pipeline process for flow visualization focusing on experimental data generation and advanced visualization techniques. The paper tries to help the experimentalist navigating the landscape of recently developed volumetric measurement techniques and advanced visualization techniques. The processing steps and related difficulties are illustrated with the transitional backward facing step flow experiment at Re _h = 4,440. The paper shows the usage of flow visualization for quantitative volumetric PIV data analysis.     

Modeling and correction of peak-locking in digital PIV

The systematic tendency of PIV evaluations to bias towards integral pixel values is known as peak-locking. These errors, although small, significantly affect the statistics extracted from such measurements. In this paper, the process by which such errors accrue is modeled, and a scheme for the removal of the same is suggested. Specifically, the modeling process considers FFT PIV with discrete window offset. The results are applied to actual situations and the results are found to be encouraging. The process is computationally inexpensive, and can be applied as a post processing technique to existing data to correct peak-locking.     

Stereoscopic and tomographic PIV of a pitching plate

This paper applies particle image velocimetry (PIV) to a simplified, canonical, pitch-hold-return problem of a pitching plate in order to gain some understanding of how three dimensionality develops in such flows. Data from a progression of PIV studies, from stereoscopic PIV yielding three-component, two-dimensional (3C-2D) data to tomographic PIV yielding three-component, three-dimensional (3C-3D) data are presented thus providing progressively more detailed information. A comparison of results is made between the two techniques. The PIV study is performed in a water tunnel facility with cross-sectional area 500 × 500 mm, and involves a full-span (nominally two-dimensional) plate, suspended between a wall end boundary condition and a free surface, pitching at a dimensionless pitch rate of K _c  = 0.93 in flow at Re = 7,500. Results demonstrate the existence of spanwise flows in both the leading edge and trailing edge vortices, but with strong directionality in the leading edge vortex towards the wall end boundary condition. Observations of instantaneous flow patterns suggest also the existence of three-dimensional coherent vortex filament structures in the outer regions of the leading edge vortex.     

PIV measurements of a microchannel flow

 A particle image velocimetry (PIV) system has been developed to measure velocity fields with order 1-μm spatial resolution. The technique uses 200 nm diameter flow-tracing particles, a pulsed Nd:YAG laser, an inverted epi-fluorescent microscope, and a cooled interline-transfer CCD camera to record high-resolution particle-image fields. The spatial resolution of the PIV technique is limited primarily by the diffraction-limited resolution of the recording optics. The accuracy of the PIV system was demonstrated by measuring the known flow field in a 30 μm×300 μm (nominal dimension) microchannel. The resulting velocity fields have a spatial resolution, defined by the size of the first window of the interrogation spot and out of plane resolution of 13.6 μm× 0.9 μm×1.8 μm, in the streamwise, wall-normal, and out of plane directions, respectively. By overlapping the interrogation spots by 50% to satisfy the Nyquist sampling criterion, a velocity-vector spacing of 450 nm in the wall-normal direction is achieved. These measurements are accurate to within 2% full-scale resolution, and are the highest spatially resolved PIV measurements published to date. Received: 29 October 1998/Accepted: 10 March 1999