Three-dimensional analysis of blade force and sound generation for an annular cascade in distorted flows

An unsteady lifting-surface theory for a rotating subsonic annular cascade has been developed to predict the unsteady blade forces and the acoustic power generation caused by interaction of blades with inlet distortions or wakes. Disturbance pressure and velocity fields induced by the rotor blades with fluctuating blade force are expressed in terms of the blade force distribution and kernel functions. The spanwise distribution of the blade force is given as a sum of blade force modes, and the kernel functions are resolved into the corresponding modal components. The sound pressure and intensity are expressed as a sum of acoustic modes, the modal components of which are given in terms of the blade force mode components.Numerical computations have been conducted .for interaction with the external disturbance flows that are sinusoidal in the circumferential direction, but possess a phase skewing in the radial direction. Correlations among the acoustic modes, the blade force modes and the flow patterns of the external disturbance have been investigated. When the predominant acoustic mode is subresonant, the blade force amplitude is reduced by the three-dimensional effect, which is lessened as the frequency increases. At deeply superresonant states, however, the three-dimensional effect upon the spanwise average of the blade force amplitude is small. The generated sound power is effectively reduced by increasing the radial non-uniformity of the external disturbance.     

管内声传播非线性效应及反声影响的数值研究

本文提出了包括考虑反声效应的一种数值方法来计算跨声速变截面硬壁管道内无声激波非线性声传播问题。通过许多算例,详细讨论了管道形状,喉部流动马赫数,入口声源强度及反声源强度对非线性声传播影响。算例表明,确实存在最佳反声强度,这时管道出口可得到明显的声衰减效果。     

Experimental and numerical investigation of the unsteady flow field and tone generation in an isolated centrifugal fan impeller

In spite of a low circumferential Mach number the sound of isolated centrifugal fan impellers is sometimes dominated by distinctive tones at blade passing frequency (BPF) and integer multiples. This paper reports on an experimental and numerical investigation intended to unveil the tone generating mechanism. The sound spectra from three impellers operating at a large range of speed were measured and decomposed into Strouhal and Helmholtz number dependent functions. This led to the preliminary conclusion that the BPF related tones are exclusively flow-induced. Based on hot-wire and blade pressure fluctuation measurements and a subsequent correlation analysis, coherent flow structures different from those associated with the principal azimuthal flow pattern due to the blades were detected. Eventually a numerical three-dimensional unsteady flow simulation revealed an inlet vortex. It takes on a helical form, with the vortex core slowly varying its position with respect to the impeller center. As the blades cut through that quasi-stationary helical vortex they encounter blade force fluctuations, producing the BPF tones. Slow spin of the vortex core and slow variation of vortex strength were identified as the reasons for amplitude modulation of the BPF tone.     

A study of active tonal noise control for a small axial flow fan

Sound radiated by a computer cooling fan consists of tones which are phase locked with the rotation, and other less deterministic tones and broadband random noise. This paper demonstrates the feasibility of globally eliminating the rotation-locked tones by applying a very simple destructive interference to a modified cooling fan with the number of struts equal to the number of rotor blades. The rig consists of a miniature electret microphone used as a rotation sensor, an ordinary loudspeaker, and a bandpass filter with adjustable amplitude and phase delay. The microphone is located at the inlet bellmouth of the fan to pick up the fluctuating aerodynamic pressure caused by the passing rotor blades. The pressure spectrum is rich in the blade passing frequency (BPF) and its low-order harmonics. It provides much better performance than a pulse-generating tachometer. Analysis of the original fan noise shows that about 90% of the radiated tonal sound is phase locked with rotation, and this portion is almost completely eliminated in all directions. The reductions of the radiated sound power in the first two BPFs are 18.5 and 13.0 dB, respectively, and the overall sound power reduction is 11.0 dB.     

On the use of a uniformly valid analytical cascade response function for fan broadband noise predictions

The present paper extends an existing analytical model of the aeroacoustic response of a rectilinear cascade of flat-plate blades to three-dimensional incident vortical gusts, to the prediction of the noise generated by a three-dimensional annular blade-row. The extended formulation is meant to be implemented in a fan broadband noise prediction tool. The intended applications include the modern turbofan engines, for which analytical modelling is believed to be a good alternative to more expensive numerical techniques. The prediction noise model resorts to a strip theory approach based on a three-dimensional rectilinear cascade model. The latter is based on the Wiener-Hopf technique, and yields the pressure field in the blade passage and the unsteady blade loading. The analytical pressure solution is derived by making an extensive use of the residue theorem. The obtained unsteady blade loading distribution over the blades is then used as a dipole source distribution in an acoustic analogy applied in the annular rigid duct with uniform mean flow. The new achievements are then tested on three-dimensional annular-benchmark configurations and compared with three-dimensional lifting-surface models and three-dimensional Euler linearized codes available in the literature. The accuracy of the model is shown for high hub-to-tip ratio cases. When used as such in a true rectilinear-cascade configuration, it also reproduces the exact radiated field that can be derived directly. For low hub-to-tip ratio configurations, the model departs from three-dimensional computations, both regarding the blade loading and the acoustic radiation. A correction is proposed to account for the actual annular dispersion relation in the rectilinear-cascade response function. The results suggest that the proposed correction is necessary to get closer to the underlying physics of the annular-space wave equation, but that it is yet not sufficient to fully reproduce three-dimensional results.     

Acoustic radiation from a simple structure in supersonic flow

It is well established that fluid flow can have significant effects on structural acoustic behavior, as is the fact that induced coupling between discrete modes of vibration becomes significant as flow velocity increases. To date, work in this area has been confined to subsonic flows, with the effects on sound radiation efficiency and sound power radiation quantified and compared for various subsonic flow speeds. The purpose of this work is to study the effects that supersonic flow has on these structural acoustic phenomena, along with an investigation of the uncoupled behavior of single modes in the transonic region. Theoretical development of the equations governing the vibration of a simply supported plate in an infinite baffle and an aerodynamic system that models a semi infinite flowing medium along with the method for coupling these systems is included. Computational results are presented illustrating the behavior of the uncoupled modes in the transonic region and the uncoupled and coupled effects on the structural response and sound power radiation as well as a study of the radiation efficiency of the coupled system.     

亚音速轴流风扇后掠叶片定子与湍流互作用宽频辐射噪声预报

针对亚音速轴流风扇后掠叶片定子的宽频辐射噪声问题,介绍并推导了叶栅宽频辐射声功率计算公式,通过该公式计算后掠叶片定子的宽频辐射声功率级,并从湍流入流和叶栅响应的角度揭示后掠角对定子辐射噪声的影响机理。在此基础上,考虑到实际风扇定子工作在转子尾流中的情况,采用Gauss尾流模型模拟转子尾流,建立转子尾流湍流波数谱模型,推导得到定子叶片与转子尾流互作用的宽频辐射声功率计算公式。通过与NASA风扇试验模型对比得到,考虑转子尾流的定子叶栅宽频辐射声功率计算公式能够较好的预报后掠定子宽频辐射声功率。最后,针对试验风扇模型,分析叶片安装角、叶片弦长对后掠叶片定子辐射噪声的影响。     

单叶片桨噪声相移叠加法预报多叶片船舶螺旋桨非空化低频噪声

单个桨叶噪声预报螺旋桨非空化噪声可显著降低计算耗时,本文联合URANS和声类比方程对该方法进行验证,并对螺旋桨噪声的时域特征进行分析。首先计算均匀流中E779A螺旋桨的声辐射,揭示了桨叶上声压分布及测点声压信号的典型周期特征,采用单个叶片噪声相移叠加(简称\     

Prediction of propeller non-cavitation noise by superimposing shifted sound signal from an isolated blade

The time-cost of the propeller non-cavitation noise prediction can be greatly reduced by the isolated blade method,which is validated via hybrid URANS and acoustic analogy,followed by the acoustic characteristics of propeller in time domain are analyzed.Firstly,we predicted the sound of the E779 A propeller operating in uniform inflow and found a typical periodic characteristic of the sound pressure distribution on propeller blade as well as the sound signal of the receiver,and the result by the superimposing shifted sound signal from an isolated blade(isolated blade method) agreed well with the result by the integration on total blades,which validated the credibility of the isolated blade method in uniform inflow.Finally,we predicted the sound of a propeller running in the wake of submarine by the isolated blade method,and the result also agreed well with the result by the integration on total blades,which further indicated that the isolated blade method was also applicable for the non-cavitation noise prediction of the propeller running in non-uniform inflow.The noise prediction of the counter-rotating propeller,the pump-jet can also benefit from this method.     

Damping of flexural vibrations in turbofan blades using the acoustic black hole effect

The results of the experimental study into the damping of flexural vibrations in turbofan blades with trailing edges tapered according to a power-law profile are reported. Trailing edges of power-law profile (wedges), with small pieces of attached absorbing layers, materialise one-dimensional acoustic black holes for flexural waves that can absorb a large proportion of the incident flexural wave energy. The experiments were carried out on four model blades made of aluminium. Two of them were twisted, so that a more realistic fan blade could be considered. All model blades, the ones with tapered trailing edges and the ones of traditional form, were excited by an electromagnetic shaker, and the corresponding frequency response functions have been measured. The results show that the resonant peaks are reduced substantially once a power-law tapering is introduced to the blade. An initial study into the aerodynamic implications of this method has been carried out as well, using measurements in a closed circuit wind tunnel. In particular, the effects of the trailing edge of power-law profile on the airflow-excited vibrations of the fan blades have been investigated. It has been demonstrated that trailing edges of power-law profile with appropriate damping layers are efficient in reduction of the airflow-excited vibrations of the fan blades. The obtained results demonstrate that power-law tapering of trailing edges of turbofan blades can be a viable method of reduction of blade vibrations.     

On the prediction of “buzz-saw” noise in acoustically lined aero-engine inlet ducts

Aero-engines operating with supersonic fan tip speeds generate an acoustic signature containing energy spread over a range of harmonics of the engine shaft rotation frequency. These harmonics are commonly known as the “buzz-saw” tones. The pressure signature attached to a supersonic ducted fan will be a sawtooth waveform. The non-linear propagation of a high-amplitude irregular sawtooth upstream inside the inlet duct redistributes the energy amongst the buzz-saw tones. In most modern aero-engines the inlet duct contains an acoustic lining, whose properties will be dependent on the mode number and frequency of the sound, and the speed of the oncoming flow. Such effects may not easily be incorporated into a time-domain approach; hence the non-linear propagation of an irregular sawtooth is calculated in the frequency domain, which enables liner damping to be included in the numerical model. Results are presented comparing noise predictions in hard-walled and acoustically lined inlet ducts. These show the effect of an acoustic liner on the buzz-saw tones. These predictions compare favourably with previous experimental measurements of liner insertion loss (at blade passing frequency), and provide a plausible explanation for the observed reduction in this insertion loss at high fan operating speeds.     

Fan interaction noise reduction using a wake generator: experiments and computational aeroacoustics

A control grid (wake generator) aimed at reducing rotor-stator interaction modes in fan engines when mounted upstream of the rotor has been studied here. This device complements other active noise control systems currently proposed. The compressor model of the instrumented ONERA CERF-rig is used to simulate suitable conditions. The design of the grid is drafted out using semi-empirical models for wake and potential flow, and experimentally achieved. Cylindrical rods are able to generate a spinning mode of the same order and similar level as the interaction mode. Mounting the rods on a rotating ring allows for adjusting the phase of the control mode so that an 8 dB sound pressure level (SPL) reduction at the blade passing frequency is achieved when the two modes are out of phase. Experimental results are assessed by a numerical approach using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). A Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes 2-D solver, developed at ONERA, is used to provide the unsteady force components on blades and vanes required for acoustics. The loading noise source term of the Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings equation is used to model the interaction noise between the sources, and an original coupling to a boundary element method (BEM) code is realized to take account of the inlet geometry effects on acoustic in-duct propagation. Calculations using the classical analytical the Green function of an infinite annular duct are also addressed. Simple formulations written in the frequency domain and expanded into modes are addressed and used to compute an in-duct interaction mode and to compare with the noise reduction obtained during the tests. A fairly good agreement between predicted and measured SPL is found when the inlet geometry effects are part of the solution (by coupling with the BEM). Furthermore, computed aerodynamic penalties due to the rods are found to be negligible. These results partly validate the computation chain and highlight the potential of the wake generator system proposed.     

掠效应对高负荷跨音转子性能的影响

本文对一高负荷跨音转子采用掠技术进行了改型设计,并通过数值模拟对原型以及前、后掠转子分别进行了流场分析。结果发现掠叶片效率和压比与原型叶片相差不大,但是前掠叶型的失速裕度得到了大幅提高。同时前掠叶型的堵塞流量比原始叶型增大,而后掠叶型却明显减小。叶片采用掠之后一方面前缘位置变化所引起的径向压力输运改变了入口来流条件,另一方面气动掠还直接影响到了叶片吸力面附面层内低能流体的径向输运以及在叶尖区域的集聚,从而使流场内部的激波强度及相对位置明显变化,并最终导致叶片不同叶高载荷分布规律的改变。     

Some benchmark problems for computational aeroacoustics

This paper presents analytical results for high-speed leading-edge noise which may be useful for benchmark testing of computational aeroacoustics codes. The source of the noise is a convected gust striking the leading edge of a wing or fan blade at arbitrary subsonic Mach number; the streamwise shape of the gust is top-hat, Gaussian, or sinusoidal, and the cross-stream shape is top-hat, Gaussian, or uniform. Detailed results are given for all nine combinations of shapes; six combinations give three-dimensional sound fields, and three give two-dimensional fields. The gust shapes depend on numerical parameters, such as frequency, rise time, and width, which may be varied arbitrarily in relation to aeroacoustic code parameters, such as time-step, grid size, and artificial viscosity. Hence it is possible to determine values of code parameters suitable for accurate calculation of a given acoustic feature, e.g., the impulsive sound field produced by a gust with sharp edges, or a full three-dimensional acoustic directivity pattern, or a complicated multi-lobed directivity. Another possibility is to check how accurately a code can determine the far acoustic field from nearfield data; a parameter here would be the distance from the leading edge at which the data are taken.     

不同叶轮形式下离心泵噪声特性对比研究

针对具有无短叶片和有短叶片两种叶轮形式的离心泵,对设计状态下离心泵内部流场进行了全三维、非定常数值模拟,对比分析了其非定常流场特性和噪声辐射特性。流场分析表明:叶轮叶片和蜗舌的相互作用造成了叶片表面强烈的压力脉动,对长短叶片的叶轮形式,在局部增加长叶片表面压力脉动的同时,短叶片表面的压力脉动保持较低水平;同时能够有效降低泵体进口压力脉动,但出口压力脉动有所增强。以叶轮叶片表面作为声源辐射面,对比分析了两种叶轮的偶极子噪声辐射特性,结果表明:长短叶片结构通过改变声能在频域上的分布,从而能有效降低总声压级。     

叶轮机械动静叶片排非定常气动干涉的数值模拟

本文采用一种分区算法求解二维Navier-Stokes方程,对叶轮机械多级叶片排内的非定常流场干涉进行数值模拟。在探讨分区计算对于复杂通道内流场和动静叶列非定常干涉作用数值计算的必要性和重要性之后,针对某蒸汽轮机跨音速叶片组进行了数值分析,得到了典型的动静叶间非定常干涉流动图谱、作用于叶片的非定常气动力及其频谱特征。计算结果表明。本文提出的计算方法是合理有效的,为今后进行大规模动静叶非定常气动计算和基于非定常数值模拟的工程设计提供了可靠的依据和有用的工具。     

Application of inertia-induced excitation theory for nonlinear acoustic modes in colloidal plasma equilibrium flow

Application of inertia-induced acoustic excitation theory offers a new resonant excitation source channel of acoustic turbulence in the transonic domain of plasma flow. In bi-ion plasmas like colloidal plasma, two well-defined transonic points exist corresponding to the parent ion and the dust grain-associated acoustic modes. As usual, the modified ion acoustic mode (also known as dust ion-acoustic (DIA) wave) dynamics associated with parent ion inertia is excitable for both nanoscale-and micronscale-sized dust grains. It is found that the so-called (ion) acoustic mode (also known as dust-acoustic (DA) wave) associated with nanoscale dust grain inertia is indeed resonantly excitable through the active role of weak but finite parent ion inertia. It is interestingly conjectured that the same excitation physics, as in the case of normal plasma sound mode, operates through the active inertial role of plasma thermal species. Details of the nonlinear acoustic mode analyses of current interest in transonic domains of such impure plasmas in hydrodynamic flow are presented.      

A Novel Dehumidification Strategy to Reduce Liquid Fraction and Condensation Loss in Steam Turbines

Massive droplets can be generated to form two-phase flow in steam turbines, leading to erosion issues to the blades and reduces the reliability of the components. A condensing two-phase flow model was developed to assess the flow structure and loss considering the nonequilibrium condensation phenomenon due to the high expansion behaviour in the transonic flow in linear blade cascades. A novel dehumidification strategy was proposed by introducing turbulent disturbances on the suction side. The results show that the Wilson point of the nonequilibrium condensation process was delayed by increasing the inlet superheated level at the entrance of the blade cascade. With an increase in the inlet superheated level of 25 K, the liquid fraction and condensation loss significantly reduced by 79% and 73%, respectively. The newly designed turbine blades not only remarkably kept the liquid phase region away from the blade walls but also significantly reduced 28.1% averaged liquid fraction and 47.5% condensation loss compared to the original geometry. The results provide an insight to understand the formation and evaporation of the condensed droplets inside steam turbines.     

Psychological acoustics: Benchmark papers in acoustics/13: 1979, edited by E. D. Schubert. New York: Dowden,Hutchinson and Ross Inc., distributed by Academic Press. 390 + xiii pp.; price: £34.50 (also available in a Library Edition with microfiche).

This paper describes an analytical method for estimating the coolant pump-induced acoustic pressure distribution in the inlet annulus of a pressurized water reactor. To simplify the problem, flow velocity is ignored and the walls bounding the annular cavity are assumed to be rigid. The phenomenon of beating due to slight differences in the pump blade passing frequencies is included in this analysis. An experiment based on a simple laboratory model is carried out to verify the theory, small loudspeakers being used to simulate the pumps and air as the fluid medium. Agreement between theory and measurement is good.     

非线性波动方程的新数值迭代方法

提出了一种新的求解非线性波动方程的数值迭代法,它是一种半解析的方法.与完全的数值计算方法扰法相比,它能够考虑各阶谐波的相互作用,且能够满足能量守恒定律.用它研究了非线性声波在液体中的传播性质,结果表明,在微扰法适用的声强范围内迭代法也适用,在微扰法不适用的一个较宽的声强范围内迭代法依然适用.