Kinetic modelling of the thermal oxidation of polyisoprene elastomers. Part 1: Unvulcanized unstabilized polyisoprene

The thermal oxidation of an unvulcanized, unstabilized polyisoprene rubber (IR) has been studied in the 40-140 °C temperature range. Ageing was monitored by FTIR determination of double bonds and carbonyl groups, mass uptake measurement, and weight average molar mass determination. A mechanistic scheme based on the standard scheme for radical chain oxidation, but taking into account the diversity of initiation processes and the existence of inter- and intramolecular radical additions to double bonds, was built. The kinetic model derived from this scheme is composed of seven differential equations to be solved in discrete thickness layers to take into account the kinetic control by oxygen diffusion. This system was numerically solved using a Matlab program dedicated to stiff systems of differential equations. The elementary rate constants and other kinetic parameters were then determined from experimental data, using an inverse approach. A set of physically reasonable parameter values was obtained, thus allowing us to envisage lifetime predictions at low temperature (long term). The results led to observations difficult to make from classical analytical studies, for instance the predominance of bimolecular hydroperoxide decomposition among other initiation modes or the competition between intermolecular hydrogen abstraction and intramolecular addition of peroxy radicals to double bonds.     

Thermal oxidation of polybutadiene. Part 1: Effect of temperature, oxygen pressure and sample thickness on the thermal oxidation of hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene

An additive-free, uncrosslinked, hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene of predominant trans 1-4 structure was thermally oxidized at temperatures ranging from 60 to 120 °C, under various oxygen pressures (between 0.01 and 3.1 MPa). Samples of thickness ranging from 5 to 1000 μm were studied by gravimetry (mass changes due to oxygen absorption) and infrared spectrophotometry (hydroxyl and carbonyl build-up, double bond consumption). The effects of film thickness, oxygen pressure and temperature on oxidation kinetics are discussed in terms of branched radical chain mechanisms.     

Kinetic modelling of the thermal oxidation of polyisoprene elastomers. Part 2: Effect of sulfur vulcanization on mass changes and thickness distribution of oxidation products during thermal oxidation

Thermal oxidation of sulfur vulcanized polyisoprene samples was studied by gravimetry and IR mapping of carbonyl groups (to determine the oxidized layer thickness (TOL)) at temperatures ranging from 60 to 150 °C in air. Oxidation appears noticeably lower than that for the starting non-vulcanized polyisoprene, revealing a stabilizing effect of sulfur-containing species. After a short period where mass loss presumably due to water evaporation predominates, the sample mass increases until a plateau corresponding to 6.3% (at 60 °C) to 0.5% (at 140 °C) mass gain. Practically no weight gain (∼0.1%) was observed at 150 °C. The mass uptake is due to oxygen grafting to the chains. TOL varies from about 4.6 mm (70 °C) to about 1 mm (150 °C).A kinetic model, derived from a mechanistic scheme of radical chain oxidation including stabilizing events due to hydroperoxide reduction by sulfur-containing groups and taking into account the diffusion-reaction coupling, was established and numerically resolved. The model predictions for mass changes and TOL values are in good agreement with experimental data.     

Chemiluminescence accompanying the oxidation of hemicelluloses

On the series of hemicelluloses such as xyloglucans and xylans the effect of O-CH₃ substitution and initial molar mass on chemiluminescence intensity measured under non-isothermal conditions in oxygen and nitrogen from 40 to 220 °C was examined. It was ascertained that the rate constants of oxidation determined from non-isothermal chemiluminescence experiments describe quite well the relative stability of the respective hemicellulose. Similarly as in the case of cellulose and pullulan increasing molar mass has an adverse effect on the intensity of the light emission.     

Chemiluminescence from singlet oxygen that was detected at two wavelengths and effects of biomolecules on it

We developed the detection apparatus that equipped with the two-photomultiplier tubes for chemiluminescence from singlet oxygen. Singlet oxygen was generated with reaction between sodium hypochlorite and hydrogen peroxide. The chemiluminescence from singlet oxygen, the dimol light emission (ca. 634 nm) and the monomol light emission (ca. 1270 nm), was observed simultaneously for the same reaction cell. The effects of sodium azide as an antioxidant, human serum albumin, and α-amino acids on the chemiluminescence based on the both emissions were examined; the observed chemiluminescence could provide direct information with regard to the reaction between singlet oxygen and antioxidant/biomolecules. The apparent rate constants for quenching singlet oxygen in the presence of human serum albumin were calculated to be ca. 3.3 × 10⁹ and ca. 8.8 × 10⁸ M⁻¹ s⁻¹ for the dimol and monomol light emissions, respectively, under the present conditions. The chemiluminescence intensities of the dimol emission decreased in the presence of His, Asp, Phe, Ser, and Tyr, and that of the monomol decreased in the presence of Cys and Trp. The chemiluminescence observed in the presence of biomolcules was discussed together with the reactivities of sodium hypochlorite and hydrogen peroxide to biomolecules.     

The effects of annealing in inert atmospheres and of oxygen concentration on chemiluminescence from polypropylene

It has been shown that heating polypropylene powder under a nitrogen atmosphere leads to the significant prolongation of the oxidation induction time measured by chemiluminescence in oxygen at 130 and 140 °C. While heating in nitrogen from 0 to 4 h at 140 °C leads to the linear increase of oxidation induction time, the maximum chemiluminescence intensity I_stat increases with the time of sample annealing until 2 h; then it starts to decay. The different and sometime unknown thermal history of the sample may thus explain the scatter of induction times of oxidation observed with different PPs whether they be pure or stabilised. Maximum chemiluminescence intensity plotted vs. concentration of oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere at 130 and 140 °C also increases linearly; however, this does not correspond with very small reduction of oxidation induction time. The four-parametric “master equations” used in our earlier papers were applied to fit the chemiluminescence runs both in oxygen and in nitrogen. The equation operates with the rate constants of hydroperoxide decomposition and oxidation spreading but at the same time, it takes into account the possible effect of oxidation products on decomposition of hydroperoxides.     

Simultaneous oxygen uptake and imaging chemiluminescence measurements

There are several studies that make a comparison between chemiluminescence and oxygen uptake. Although, there are several reasons to perform this comparison on the same sample at the same conditions, these studies were done by comparing results from separate oxygen uptake and chemiluminescence experiments.It is also postulated that the shape of the chemiluminescence and oxygen uptake curves is not related to the kinetics of the degradation chemistry but to the oxidizing area. To be able to measure the luminescence and the oxygen uptake at the same sample under exactly the same conditions an apparatus is developed in which both measurements can be done simultaneously. To be able to get information on the oxidizing area too, this apparatus is based on imaging chemiluminescence. The induction times determined with chemiluminescence and oxygen uptake are about comparable, although at lower temperatures the induction time according to oxygen uptake is shorter, which might be due to a decrease of the sensitivity of chemiluminescence with temperature.For stabilized and unstabilized polypropylene it was shown that the luminescence curve is related to the amount of material degrading and that the shape of the oxygen uptake and luminescence curves is not related to the kinetics of the degradation chemistry.     

Kinetic modelling of the thermal oxidation of polyisoprene elastomers. Part 3: Oxidation induced changes of elastic properties

This paper is the third of a series elaborating a non-empirical kinetic model for the thermal oxidation of a sulfur vulcanized polyisoprene. Here, we try to identify kinetic parameters for post-crosslinking and reversion (“decrosslinking”) from torsion measurements, under nitrogen at temperatures ranging from 100 to 160 °C. The kinetic parameters relative to oxidative reversion (selective scissions on sulfur crosslinks) are also determined. Then a system of 13 differential equations is derived from the mechanistic scheme composed of 15 elementary reactions. Diffusion and reactions are coupled in the balance equation of oxygen in order to establish the degradation thickness profiles from which it is possible to determine the modulus profiles. The latter are used, through a composite mechanics model, to predict the global torsion stiffness of a rubber barrel. The results obtained at 100, 110, 130, 140, 150 and 160 °C are in good agreement with experimental data.     

Oxidation of ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) part 1: Interpretation of the chemiluminescence curve recorded during thermal oxidation

The chemiluminescence curve of polyethylene differs from that of polypropylene even though the oxidation behaviour is similar. The CL curve of PE normally exhibits a double sigmoidal behaviour, whereas PP shows a single sigmoid, and its luminescence intensity is also much lower. It was found, by investigating the build-up of carbonyls and hydroperoxides by means of FTIR, that the first peak coincides with a maximum in hydroperoxide concentration and the second with the build-up of carbonyls. The intensity of the first peak is enhanced by doping the PE with DPA (9,10-diphenylanthracene), which is a chemiluminescence activator, but unaffected by doping the PE with DBA (9,10-dibromoanthracene), which is an energy acceptor. The intensity of the first peak also depends on the presence of carbonyls in the sample. From these observations it is concluded that the CL from PE is a type of activated chemiluminescence, which originates from hydroperoxide decomposition, with carbonyls acting as activator.     

Substituent effect on the chemiluminescence quantum efficiency of some acridan derivatives. Chemiluminescence quenching

Reaction of eight 9-benzylidene-N-methylacridan derivatives with singlet oxygen results in chemiluminescence quantum yields giving a good fit if plotted versusHammett's values. To account for the deviation of two derivatives, the quenching constants of the leaving moieties on the fluorescence of the primary emitter are compared with the diffusion constant in the medium, verifying an earlier suggestion that even small quenching efficiencies of the leaving moiety greatly affect chemiluminescence quantum yields.

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Substituenteneffekte auf die Chemilumineszenz-Quantenausbeute einiger Acridan-Derivate. Chemilumineszenz Quench-Effekte

Zusammenfassung Die Reaktion von acht 9-Benzyliden-N-methylacridanen mit Singlet-Sauerstoff ergibt Chemilumineszenz-Quantenausbeuten, die eine gute lineare Abhängigkeit gegenüber denHammett'schen -Werten zeigen. Um die Abweichung zweier Derivate zu erklären, wurden die Quench-Konstanten für die bei der Fluoreszenz des Primär-Emitters entstehenden Moleküle in Relation zur Diffusionskonstante gesetzt. Es bestätigte sich die frühere Vermutung, daß auch eine geringer Quench-Effizienz von entstehenden Produkten einen sehr großen Effekt auf die Chemilumineszenz-Quantenausbeuten haben kann.

     

A kinetic evaluation of the thermal oxidation of a phenol stabilised polybutadiene

The thermal oxidation of hydroxy telechelic polybutadiene stabilised with 2,2′-methylene-bis(4-methyl-6-tert-butylphenol) was studied at 100 °C using weight changes and stabiliser quantification by liquid chromatography. The extended induction time relative to the unstabilised sample and the initial rate of stabiliser depletion were found to be proportional to the initial stabiliser concentration.Previously published kinetic models, based on the hypothesis that the stabiliser is only consumed by reaction with peroxy radicals and that the stationary state assumption is appropriate, were examined and found insufficient to explain the observations. An improved model was suggested assuming the contribution of a phenol oxygen reaction that results in a competing oxidation of the stabiliser itself. Experimental and theoretical arguments in favour of this model refinement are proposed.     

Influence of unsaturated aliphatic and aromatic volatile organic compounds on the oxidation of aqueous sulfur dioxide by oxygen in aqueous medium

The trace atmospheric volatile organic compounds(VOCs) are reported to influence the oxidation of dissolved sulfur dioxide, S(IV), by oxygen, which is an important reaction in atmospheric acid formation. In this work, the influence of 15 VOCs on uncatalyzed oxidation of S(IV) by oxygen has been investigated by following the disappearance of [O₂]. The inhibition of oxidation reaction by toluene, aniline, benzene, cinnamic acid, hydroquinone, acrylamide, acrylonitrile and allyl alcohol was defined by the rate law(A):k_VOC = k₀/(1+B [Inh]) (A)where, k_VOC, and k₀ are the first order rate constants in the presence and the absence of VOCs respectively. B is the inhibition parameter and [Inh] is the concentration of inhibitor.On the other hand, fumaric, maleic and crotonic acids, which have conjugated CC bonds, catalyze the reaction defined by the rate law(B):k_VOC = k₀ + k_cat [VOC] (B)where k_cat is catalytic constant and [VOC] is the concentration of catalytic VOC.Interestingly, presence of 1-hexene, cyclohexene, methacrylic acid, methyl acrylate was without any significant effect on the rate of reaction.     

Accelerating effect of poly(methyl methacrylate) on rubber oxidation, Part 1: A chemiluminescence study

The oxidative stability of blends of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) with four types of rubber, poly(ethylene-stat-propylene-stat-5-methylene-2-norbornene) (EPDM), poly(ethylene-stat-vinyl acetate) (EVA), dicarboxy terminated poly(acrylonitrile-stat-butadiene) (NBR) and poly(1,3-butadiene-stat-styrene) (SBR), has been investigated as models for rubber-toughened PMMA. Chemiluminescence was used to monitor the oxidation of the rubber in the blends, revealing an unexpected accelerating effect of PMMA on the oxidation of all the rubbers investigated. The effect varies according to the type of rubber and the temperature. The thermo-oxidative stability of PMMA has also been found to decrease in the presence of the rubber as proved by thermogravimetry, confirming mutually antagonistic effects of PMMA and rubber in the blend oxidation. On the basis of results from all techniques, including identification of oxidation products by FTIR spectroscopy, a possible mechanism is suggested, involving the formation of mobile radicals in PMMA induced by rubber oxidation. These radicals are suggested to play a crucial role in enhancing rubber phase oxidation.     

Thermal oxidation of polybutadiene. Part 2: Mechanistic and kinetic schemes for additive-free non-crosslinked polybutadiene

The thermal oxidation of an additive-free, uncrosslinked, hydroxy-terminated polybutadiene has been studied at temperatures ranging from 60 to 120 °C and oxygen pressures from 0.01 to 3.1 MPa by gravimetry, IR spectrophotometry and chemical titration of epoxides and hydroperoxides for samples of 20 and 265 μm thicknesses. A mechanistic scheme with 17 elementary steps among which radical additions to double bonds, decomposition of the resulting alkyl radicals and the corresponding terminations was proposed on the basis of qualitative observations and literature data. A kinetic scheme, composed of 8 differential equations for the 8 reactive species plus 4 equations for the measured quantities, has been derived from the mechanistic scheme. The kinetic parameters, essentially elementary rate constants, have been determined using an inverse approach. A set of physically reasonable parameter values has been obtained. With these parameters, the kinetic model is able to generate kinetic curves of the mass gain, carbonyl build-up, hydroxyl build-up, double bond consumption, epoxide build-up and hydroperoxide build-up, reasonably close to experimental ones, in the full domain of temperatures, oxygen pressures and sample thickness under consideration.     

Chemiluminescence from the oxidation of urea and ammonia with hypobromite and N-bromosuccinimide

The spectral distribution for the chemiluminescent oxidation of ammonia with hypobromite is significantly different to that for the oxidation of ammonia with N-bromosuccinimide. Therefore, in contrast to the assumptions of several authors, the action of N-bromosuccinimide is not solely derived from the in situ formation of hypobromite. Neither the oxidation of urea with hypobromite nor the oxidation of urea with N-bromosuccinimide involves an initial hydrolysis of urea to ammonia in the alkaline solution. However, these two reactions lead to a common emitter. The addition of xanthene dyes, such as dichlorofluorescein, enhance the chemiluminescence intensity by energy transfer to the efficient fluorophore, but reaction between the sensitiser and hypobromite can result in a significant increase in the background signal. A list of potential interferences has been compiled; particular attention was paid to guanidino compounds, as the chemiluminescence accompanying the oxidation of this functional group has not been previously discussed.     

基于电催化还原化学发光法检测异烟肼的高灵敏方法

实验发现,异烟肼在汞膜修饰石墨电极表面被还原后即被溶液中的溶解氧所氧化,重新回到初始状态;而溶解氧被还原生成活性氧自由基,其与鲁米诺之间的弱化学发光信号强烈地受异烟肼的增敏,由此建立了一种新的高灵敏的测定异烟肼的电化学发光分析新方法.结果表明,在最佳的实验条件下,相对电化学发光强度与异烟肼的浓度在 2.0×10-9～2.0×10-6 g/mL范围内呈线性关系,检出限为 6.7×10-10 g/mL,相关系数为 0.9996.此方法已成功用于片剂异烟肼的测定.     

Chemiluminescence in model membrane structures chemiluminescence of lucigenin in the presence of estrogens

The chemiluminescence quantum yields of the lucigenin light reaction in 10^–2 M didodecyldimethylammonium bromide (DDAB) lamelar aggregates are affected by the presence of estrone and 17 -ethynylestradiol. A rise in quantum yields is observed at ca. 1·10^–4 M estrogen concentration as compared with the homogeneous (aqueous) medium, followed by a dramatic drop as the estrogen concentration increases. Unexpectedly, the smecticity of the lamelar aggregate is destroyed by estrone concentration as low as 10^–3 M and 17 -ethynylestradiol concentrations as low as 2·10^–4 M.

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Chemilumineszenz in Modell-Membranstrukturen Die Chemilumineszenz von Lucigenin in Gegenwart von Estrogenen

Zusammenfassung Die Chemilumineszenzquantenausbeuten der Lucigenin-Lichtreaktion in 10^–2 M Didodecyldimethylammoniumbromid (DDAB)-Lamellaraggregaten wird bei Gegenwart von Estron und 17 -Ethinylestradiol beeinflußt. Es wird eine Erhöhung der Quantenausbeuten bei ca. 1·10^–4 M Estrogengehalt gegenüber einem homogenen (wäßrigen) Medium beobachtet, bei Erhöhung der Estrogenkonzentration erfolgt jedoch eine drastische Erniedrigung der Quantenausbeuten. Die Smektizität der Lamellaraggregate wird bei Estronkonzentrationen von etwa 10^–3 M und 17 -Ethinylestradiolkonzentrationen von etwa 2·10^–4 M unerwarteterweise zerstört.

     

Epoxides in the thermal oxidation of polybutadiene

Polybutadiene films were aged under air or high oxygen pressure (3.1 MPa). In both cases, the amount of epoxide formed was titrated. The results show that the epoxide formation rate is a decreasing function of oxygen concentration that validates the mechanism proposed by Mayo. According to this mechanism, epoxides are generated from the decomposition of β-peroxy alkyl radicals resulting from the addition of peroxy radicals on double bonds.