Formation and propagation of cracks during cyclic deformation

Summary Starting from observation of the geometric features of formation and propagation of cracks in cycled single crystals of copper a model was developed for fatigue cracking. The only and experimentally well established assumption of the model is that the slip during cyclic deformation tends to be coarse. By the cooperation of stress concentrations at the slip steps and the hardening of slip planes activated locally two slip systems (with different slip planes and Burgers vectors) are activated alternatively so that a crack develops from the slip step. It propagates without monotonically increasing the hardening at the crack tip. The coarse slip produces sharp slip steps at the surface for crack formation and prohibits crack blunting during propagation. In contrast to other models the one described can show how the irreversible process of crack formation and propagation can take place despite completely symmetrical push-pull stresses. The whole crack is formed merely by the motion of dislocations present in the material so that but comparatively small stresses are needed. As, moreover, no thermally activated processes are necessary, fatigue at 4·2°K can be explained too. The strong dependence of fatigue on the state of the surface can also be accounted for since the cracks form at the surface steps. Materials which tend to coarse slip even in unidirectional tests are expected to fatigue easily. This is corroborated experimentally. Finally, many details of crack geometry can be explained in terms of the model.Published in Z. f. Metallkunde58 (1967), 780.     

Fatigue properties of a S45C steel subjected to ultrasonic nanocrystal surface modification

An ultrasonic nanocrystal surface modification (UNSM) technique, at 3 different vibration strike numbers (34,000 times/mm², 45,000 times/mm², 68,000 times/mm²) was used to modify the surface structure and properties of S45C. These three process conditions respectively produced 2 μm, 12 μm and 30 μm nanocrystal layers. UNSM technique improves the following mechanical properties: microhardness, surface roughness, and compressive residual stress. Also, fatigue life increased with the vibration strike number. UNSM C3 (with the vibration strike number of 68,000 times/mm²) has improved the fatigue strength by as much as 33% for S45C. Optical microscope pictures show that cracks usually initiate from intergranular microcracks on the surface and then extend along the tip traces of UNSM which are considered as process defects. A simple math model (tearing adhesive plaster model) has been made to analyze the initiation and growth of cracks. Though most of the cracks initiate at the surface of specimens, surface nanocrystal layers can help to retard crack initiation. In S45C, the efficiency of crack resistance is more than 48%.the vibration strike number     

Low-cycle fatigue small crack initiation and propagation behaviour of cast magnesium alloys based on in-situ SEM observations

In-situ observations on the initiation and propagation behaviour of low-cycle fatigue small cracks in cast magnesium–aluminium alloys (AM50 and AM60B) were carried out with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to elucidate the resistance to fatigue cracking and to evaluate the fatigue small crack growth rate accurately and quantitatively. The results indicate that the fatigue small cracks formed preferentially on β-phase (Mg₁₇Al₁₂) boundaries at room temperature. In addition, the effects of the parameters of stress levels in low-cycle fatigue and temperatures as well as microstructure on fatigue small crack propagation behaviour are revealed. The variation of crack open displacement (COD) with stress levels and cycles at elevated temperature shows that it is unsuitable to estimate the fatigue small crack growth rate of cast magnesium alloys using conventional measurement methods such as the plastic-replica technique due to the obvious difference between microscopic cracks in the open and closed states. Stabilized crack propagation behaviour is limited to cases where the physical crack length is less than 1?mm in low-cycle fatigue.     

An ultrasonic method for dynamic monitoring of fatigue crack initiation and growth

Attached ultrasonic sensors can detect changes caused by crack initiation and growth if the wave path is directed through the area of critical crack formation. Dynamics of cracks opening and closing under load cause nonlinear modulation of received ultrasonic signals, enabling small cracks to be detected by stationary sensors. A methodology is presented based upon the behavior of ultrasonic signals versus applied load to detect and monitor formation and growth of cracks originating from fastener holes. Shear wave angle beam transducers operating in through transmission mode are mounted on either side of the hole such that the transmitted wave travels through the area of expected cracking. Time shift is linear with respect to load, and is well explained by path changes due to strain combined with wave speed changes due to acoustoelasticity. During subsequent in situ monitoring with unknown loads, the measured time of flight is used to estimate the load, and behavior of the received energy as a function of load is the basis for crack detection. Results are presented from low cycle fatigue tests of several aluminum specimens and illustrate the efficacy of the method in both determining the applied load and monitoring crack initiation and growth.     

The surface cracking behavior in air plasma sprayed thermal barrier coating system incorporating interface roughness effect

The objective of this work is to understand the effect of interface roughness on the strain energy release rate and surface cracking behavior in air plasma sprayed thermal barrier coating system. This is achieved by a parameter investigation of the interfacial shapes, in which the extended finite element method (XFEM) and periodic boundary condition are used. Predictions for the stress field and driving force of multiple surface cracks in the film/substrate system are presented. It is seen that the interface roughness has significant effects on the strain energy release rate, the interfacial stress distribution, and the crack propagation patterns. One can see the completely different distributions of stress and strain energy release rate in the regions of convex and concave asperities of the substrate. Variation of the interface asperity is responsible for the oscillatory characteristics of strain energy release rate, which can cause the local arrest of surface cracks. It is concluded that artificially created rough interface can enhance the durability of film/substrate system with multiple cracks.     

Scales of metal fatigue cracking

A new paradigm is proposed for considering metal fatigue cracking based on the principles of synergetics and physical mesomechanics. Fatigue cracking is described as a three-stage process. Metal evolution is studied with stress growth from the micro- (ultrahigh cycle fatigue) to meso- (high cycle fatigue) and then macroscale (low cycle fatigue). The notion of two effective stress concentration factors on the metal surface and in its bulk is introduced; their variation pattern with stress growth is discussed. In the general case, the propagation of through-the-thickness cracks is shown to also occur in three stages—on the micro- (shear), meso- (rotation with the formation of triangular fatigue striations) and macroscale (rotation plus shear which lead to the formation of fatigue striations of complex shape), consecutively.     

Localized dissolution electrochemistry at surface irregularities of pipeline steel

The localized electrochemical dissolution behavior at surface irregularities, including scratch, mechanically induced hole and corrosion pit, on pipeline steel was investigated in both near-neutral pH and high pH solutions by scanning vibrating micro-electrode and localized electrochemical impedance spectroscopy measurements. In near-neutral pH solution, the localized dissolution behavior at surface irregularities is dependent of their geometrical depth, which is critical to development of a local electrochemical condition to support the further localized dissolution. Therefore, surface irregularities exceeding a certain depth provide potential sites to initiate stress corrosion cracks in near-neutral pH solution. The strong passivating capability of high pH solution would result in the formation of oxide film over the whole electrode surface to “equalize” the electrochemical activity at irregularities to the intact area. Therefore, the irregularities would not result in localized dissolution electrochemistry. Consequently, localized corrosion and crack initiation are not anticipated to initiate from the geometrical irregularities in high pH solution. However, corrosion pits generating due to passive film breakdown could support the high local dissolution kinetics in high pH solution, providing potential sites for crack initiation. The effects of hydrogen-charging on anodic dissolution at regularities depend on the defect geometry and the solution pH.     

Failure of a welded pressure vessel due to creep: damage initiation,evolution and reheat cracking

Continuum damage mechanics (CDM)-based constitutive equations are reviewed and presented for austenitic AISI 316H stainless steels, which undergo creep deformation and damage at 550°C. Two multi-axial stress rupture functions/criteria have been utilised. Equations and the finite element computer code, DAMAGE XX, were used to carry out CDM studies of the weldment in an axi-symmetric equivalent of the flank section of a pressurised superheater header at 550°C. Damage and lifetime predictions were made using finite and small deformation solution techniques; an insignificant difference was observed. It is shown that, using appropriate mesh refinement techniques and selecting suitable weld material ductility, CDM can be used to predict damage initiation and growth and, subsequent creep crack growth due to reheat cracking. Predicted damage initiation and growth modes are shown to correlate well with experimental and in-service observations. The results highlight the importance of multi-axial stress rupture criteria and underscore the need for more accurate materials data, under the relevant multi-axial stress states, on well-characterized material batches. Also, ductilities of the different material phases of the weld, strain affected zone, fusion boundary and weld materials, are shown to play an important role and, therefore, require more accurate determination. It is concluded that a more precise determination of the mechanical properties is necessary if the governing physical mechanisms of reheat cracking and the conditions for possible crack arrest are to be understood.     

An energy-equilibrium model for complex stress effect on fatigue crack initiation

Based on Tanaka and Mura’s fatigue model and Griffith theory for fracture,an energy-equilibrium model was proposed to explain the complex stress effect on fatigue behavior.When the summation of the elastic strain energy release and the stored strain energy of accumulated dislocations reach the surface energy of a crack,the fatigue crack will initiate in materials.According to this model,for multiaxial stress condition,the orientation of the crack initiation and the initiation life can be deduced from the energy equilibrium equation.For the uniaxial fatigue loading with mean stress,the relation between the maximum stress or the minimum stress and the stress amplitude is in agreement with an ellipse equation on the constant life diagram.If the ratio of the mean stress to stress amplitude is less than a critical value-0.17,and the stress amplitude keeps constant,the fatigue crack initiation life will decrease with the increase of the compress mean stress.In this model,the mean stress does not cause damage accumulation with the fatigue cycles in crack initiation.For this reason,the loading sequence of different load levels would induce the cumulative damage to deviate from the Palmgren-Miner cumulative damage rule.The procedure of estimating the damage under random loading is also discussed.     

不锈钢焊接件不等强度激光冲击与应力腐蚀试验研究

针对不锈钢焊接接头应力及组织分布不均匀,容易导致应力腐蚀开裂的问题,采用不等强度激光冲击波对316奥氏体不锈钢焊接接头进行处理。通过应力腐蚀试验、残余应力测试及微观组织分析,研究了激光冲击强化对焊接接头应力腐蚀抗性的影响及其作用机理。试验结果表明:激光冲击强化将焊接件的应力腐蚀断裂时间提高了33.48%。激光冲击波的作用,在焊接接头部位引入了高数值的残余压应力,一方面消除了热影响导致的残余拉应力,同时抵消了拉伸工作载荷的作用,降低局部应力梯度,从而延缓表面钝化膜的破裂;另一方面,激光冲击使焊接接头不同区域之间的微观组织均匀和细化,提高了微裂纹萌生的条件,降低了金属发生阳极溶解的可能性。两种因素的共同作用,使得不锈钢焊接接头的抗应力腐蚀性能显著增强。     

不锈钢焊接件不等强度激光冲击与应力腐蚀试验研究

针对不锈钢焊接接头应力及组织分布不均匀,容易导致应力腐蚀开裂的问题,采用不等强度激光冲击波对316奥氏体不锈钢焊接接头进行处理。通过应力腐蚀试验、残余应力测试及微观组织分析,研究了激光冲击强化对焊接接头应力腐蚀抗性的影响及其作用机理。试验结果表明：激光冲击强化将焊接件的应力腐蚀断裂时间提高了33.48%。激光冲击波的作用,在焊接接头部位引入了高数值的残余压应力,一方面消除了热影响导致的残余拉应力,同时抵消了拉伸工作载荷的作用,降低局部应力梯度,从而延缓表面钝化膜的破裂;另一方面,激光冲击使焊接接头不同区域之间的微观组织均匀和细化,提高了微裂纹萌生的条件,降低了金属发生阳极溶解的可能性。两种因素的共同作用,使得不锈钢焊接接头的抗应力腐蚀性能显著增强。     

Fatigue Crack Nucleation at Σ3(1 1 2) Boundary in a Ferritic Stainless Steel

The effect of a geometrical relationship between a grain boundary (GB) plane and a tensile axis on intergranular fatigue cracking along 3(1 1 2) twin boundaries has been investigated in Fe-30%Cr alloy crystals. Fatigue experiments were carried out on the three kinds of the specimens containing the 3(1 1 2) twin boundary. It was found that the fatigue cracking behavior was sensitive to the geometry of the GB plane. In a specimen where both the GB plane and a slip vector lying in the GB plane in adjacent grains are inclined to the tensile axis at 45°, the fatigue cracks were nucleated preferentially along the twin boundary at a stress amplitude of 170 MPa. The specimen with the GB plane normal to the tensile axis showed that the fatigue crack was initiated from a slip band formed within a constituent grain at a stress amplitude of 300 MPa. When the GB plane was inclined to the tensile axis but the slip vector lying in the GB plane was normal to the tensile axis, development of additional slips formed perpendicular to the GB plane were observed at a specific site of the GB. Initiation of intergranular fatigue cracks at the site was recognized at a stress amplitude of 250 MPa. It can be suggested that the GB plane normal to the tensile axis provides the highest fatigue performance among them. The difference in the cracking property among these specimens could be understood in terms of the effective Schmid factor derived from elastically incompatible stress.     

Assessment of surface relief and short cracks under cyclic creep in a type 316LN austenitic stainless steel

Formation of surface relief and short cracks under cyclic creep (stress-controlled fatigue) in type 316LN stainless steel was studied at temperatures ranging from ambient to 923 K using scanning electron microscopy technique. The surface topography and crack distribution behaviour under cyclic creep were found to be strong functions of testing temperature due to the difference in strain accumulation. At 823 K, surface relief mainly consisted of fine slip markings due to negligible accumulation of strain as a consequence of dynamic strain ageing (DSA) which led to an increase in the cyclic life. Persistent slip markings (PSM) with distinct extrusions containing minute cracks were seen to prevail in the temperature range 873–923 K, indicating a higher slip activity causing higher strain accumulation in the absence of DSA. Besides, a large number of secondary cracks (both transgranular and intergranular) which were partially accentuated by severe oxidation, were observed. Extensive cavitation-induced grain boundary cracking took place at 923 K, which coalesced with PSM-induced transgranular cracks resulting in failure dominated by creep that in turn led to a drastic reduction in cyclic life. Investigations on the influence of stress rate were also carried out which underlined the presence of DSA at 823 K. At 923 K, lowering the stress rate caused further strengthening of the contribution from creep damage marked by a shift in the damage mechanism from cyclic slip to diffusion.     

DYNAMICS OF A TWO-CRACK ROTOR

The effect of the presence of the single transverse crack on the response of the rotor has been a focus of attention for many researchers. In the present work a simple Jeffcott rotor with two transverse surface cracks has been studied. The stiffness of such a rotor is derived based on the concepts of fracture mechanics. Subsequently, the effect of the interaction of the two cracks on the breathing behavior and on the unbalance response of the rotor is studied. When the angular orientation of one crack relative to the other is varied, significant changes in the dynamic response of the rotor are noticed. A special case of practical importance of a two-crack rotor is one when one of the cracks is assumed to remain open always whereas the other can breathe like a fatigue crack. This simulates a transverse crack in an asymmetric rotor. Effect of orientation of the breathing crack with respect to the open crack on the dynamic response is studied in detail. The results of the present study will be useful in diagnosing fatigue cracks in real rotors, which invariably have some asymmetry.     

基于幅度调制的非线性超声相控阵成像方法*

超声相控阵是超声检测领域常用的材料缺陷定位和成像技术,可便捷快速地对裂纹、孔洞等缺陷进行成像。但是,传统超声相控阵方法对较小缺陷如闭合裂纹不太敏感。非线性超声信号因对材料性能退化以及微小缺陷敏感而广受关注。本文针对疲劳闭合裂纹检测,提出一种基于幅度调制的非线性超声相控阵成像方法,通过测量物理聚焦和虚拟聚焦两种聚焦模式下超声扩散场中的声能差,并将其作为非线性参量,实现疲劳裂纹闭合部分的定位成像和定量表征。将该法应用于7075铝合金试样疲劳裂纹的实验测量,并研究了扩散场信号延迟时间对非线性超声相控阵成像结果的影响。结果表明：相较于传统超声相控阵全聚焦法,基于幅度调制的非线性超声相控阵成像方法能够更准确地定位和成像疲劳裂纹闭合部分;延迟时间的选择对疲劳裂纹长度的表征精度影响较大,本文研究了该延迟时间的选择方法并实现了检测结果的优化。     

激光激发声表面波在缺陷板材中散射过程的有限元分析

利用有限元法模拟了金属板材中激光激发的声表面波经过缺陷位置时发生散射的瞬态过程,采用线状激光源作为超声导波的激发源.针对三种不同深度的表面缺陷以及三种亚表面缺陷的模型进行了对比计算,结果显示缺陷的深度及位置对声表面波的时域特征存在显著的影响.表面缺陷深度越深将产生较大幅度的表面反射回波,亚表面缺陷的影响将取决于缺陷上顶面距离板材上表面的距离.因此,数值模拟结果表明通过分析激光产生的表面波形可以判定近表面缺陷的尺寸和所处的位置.     

Effect of periodic surface cracks on the interfacial fracture of thermal barrier coating system

Periodic surface cracks and interfacial debonding in thermal barrier coating (TBC) system may be induced during cooling process. The objective of this work is to investigate the effect of periodic surface cracks on the interfacial fracture of TBC system. The finite element method (FEM) incorporating cohesive zone model is used in analysis. It is found that surface crack spacing has significant effect on the initiation and propagation of short interface crack. Three different regions are identified for describing the effect of surface crack spacing. In Region I the interface crack driving force is dramatically reduced due to high surface crack density. In this case, the initiation of interfacial delamination can be delayed. Region II applies as the surface crack spacing is moderate. Analysis of this transition zone brings to the definition of normalized critical surface crack spacing. Region III arises for sufficient large surface crack spacing. In this case, the interface crack driving force reaches a steady state, where the effects of adjacent surface cracks are relatively insignificant and can be ignored. It can be concluded that an appropriately high surface crack density can enhance the durability of TBC system.     

The effects of substructure on fatigue crack propagation

The correlation between the initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks and the substructure formation was examined using aluminium specimens. The effects of substructures introduced by static and alternating stresses and those of the recovery of the substructure on the propagation rates of fatigue cracks were also studied. Observations of the substructures were made by means of the X-ray micro-beam technique. The principal results obtained are as follows:

1. At the time of fatigue crack initiation a definite substructure develops at the root of a notch made on the specimen edge.
2. The rate of fatigue crack propagation has a relation to the characteristics of the substructures at the tip of the fatigue cracks.
3. While the rates of propagation are retarded by static pre-strains, they increase in proportion to the degree of substructure formation due to alternating stresses.
4. The rates are usually reduced by the recovery after alternating deformation.

On the basis of the above results, the significance of substructures for fatigue fracture is discussed.     

Ultrasonic surface crack characterization on complex geometries using surface waves

The characterization of surface cracks on complex geometries using surface waves is investigated numerically and experimentally. The specimen geometry is implemented in a finite difference code by approximation of the contour using a Cartesian grid. In the experiments the out-of-plane surface displacement is measured by means of a heterodyne laser interferometer. Good agreement is shown by comparison of the calculated out-of-plane displacement with experimental results for both cracked and non-cracked specimens. The crack depth is measured down to a size of 0.7 times the surface wavelength using a time delay approach. The many Rayleigh pulses propagating after the crack can be separated from the other modes by a filtering procedure based on the surface wave propagation velocity. Only a detailed analysis of the scattering phenomenon using the simulation allows an identification of the transmitted pulse required for crack depth measurement. Application of the method to a specimen with a real fatigue crack shows a systematical error possibly due to the inclined crack profile.     

Effect of an absorbent overlay on the residual stress field induced by laser shock processing on aluminum samples

Laser shock processing (LSP) or laser shock peening is a new technique for strengthening metals. This process induces a compressive residual stress field, which increases fatigue crack initiation life and reduces fatigue crack growth rate. Specimens of 6061-T6 aluminum alloy are used in this investigation. A convergent lens is used to deliver 2.5 J, 8 ns laser pulses by a Q-switch Nd:YAG laser, operating at 10 Hz. The pulses are focused to a diameter of 1.5 mm onto aluminum samples. Density of 2500 pulses/cm² with infrared (1064 nm) radiation was used. The effect of an absorbent overlay on the residual stress field using this LSP setup and this energy level is evaluated. Residual stress distribution as a function of depth is assessed by the hole drilling method. It is observed that the overlay makes the compressive residual stress profile move to the surface. This effect is explained on the basis of the vaporization of the coat layer suppressing thermal effects on the metallic substrate. The effect of coating the specimen surface before LSP treatment may have advantages on improving wear and contact fatigue properties of this aluminum alloy.